Youth cultures

What does culture mean?

In this topic we will explore youth culture and what this means for you as someone working with young people.

Task: What does culture mean to you?

Watch this short video as a range of people try to define culture.¹ The video was produced in Canada, but the questions are universal. As you watch, think about how you would respond.

• What is culture?
• What defines culture?
• Why is culture important?

Can you think of examples from your own life, work and interactions for each of these points?

• We learn culture in active and passive ways. Active cultural learning is what we are taught directly. Passive cultural learning is what we ‘pick up’ (often without conscious effort) from our social environment.
• We share cultural meaning amongst ‘our’ group to meet our common needs. This shared meaning and how we share it is culture.
• We have patterns of belief and practices that are meaningful – relate to common ideals, understandings and concepts. These patterns of meaning are repeated in different areas of social life.
• We adapt culture to meet our needs across different and changing environments (in time, location and social position).
• We use symbols and signs that represent deeper things about ourselves – who we are in relation to others both within and outside of our shared culture(s).

Culture, ethnicity, race

Culture and ethnicity may have some shared features, but they are not the same thing.

• Culture is learned. As individuals or as a group we can consciously choose to integrate elements of culture into ‘who we are’ and discard other elements. Culture is collective and changes over time, or when a group moves into a new environment or when things like new technology, climate changes or interactions with other cultures happen.
• Ethnicity is heritage. People who share a common ancestry, language and/or culture may view themselves as part of a distinct ethnic group. People may equate their culture with their ethnicity, but it should not be assumed. For example, Person A grew up and spent their life in New Zealand, so identify as part of New Zealand’s mainstream culture. Yet, they also see themselves as Chinese (ethnically) because of their ancestry. Person B lives in Hong Kong and is also ethnically Chinese, but is culturally different to Person A.
• While you might find some people use the terms ‘culture’ and ‘ethnicity’ interchangeably, the distinction is important, especially for understanding this topic on youth culture.

We should also be clear that ethnicity is not race. Race is a broad category based on appearance that is usually placed on a group by the mainstream society. Race flattens ethnicity and is heavily prone to simplistic stereotyping that assumes who someone is based on their physical appearance. Some people may use race as a part of their identity. But often race is an imposed stereotype that individuals must navigate their personal and cultural identities around. Race does not tell you who someone is or what they are like.

Is youth culture a thing?

So, do young people have youth culture? Do they have shared sets of processes and symbolic systems distinct from adults in their community (including their own parents or caregivers) and/or mainstream New Zealand society?

Task: How could you apply the concept of culture to the young people you work with?

Look back at the definition of culture in the previous section. Think about the young people you work with or know in your life.

• How does the concept of culture apply to them? 
• What culture do they have in common with adults in their immediate community? 
• What culture do they share with mainstream New Zealand culture? 
• What culture is distinct to them as youth? 
• What do they have in common with other young people in New Zealand? What is unique to them as young people?

Emergence of youth culture

The idea of young people having their own culture emerged in the 1950s, when American sociologist James Coleman defines the teenager as a distinct cultural group in transition between childhood and adulthood. The rise of universal education created schools as spaces of cultural and social learning separate from the family. This shared youth culture emerged at a distinctive historical moment in the United States and spread to other counties that were experiencing similar social, economic and technological shifts. While this shift was noticeable earlier on, the decades since the 1950s has seen generations of youth exposed to life experiences, opportunities, access to resources, technological change, politics, cultural references and even values distinct from those of their parents and grandparents. Sociologists are noticing that something similar appears to be happening again with the generational digital divide.

Explore further

Read these two short articles. Think about what defines a ‘teenager’ or young person, and how to apply ‘culture’ across the generations. How does someone transitioning from childhood to adulthood interact with the wider culture? And how does the moment in history they are in shape who they are?

The rise of youth culture in NZ: Read this short interview with Chris Brickell on his 2017 book Teenagers: The Rise of Youth Culture in New Zealand.³

Teenage culture in the 21st century: Read this article by Gregorio Luri. It is about Europe, but the broader points it makes can still be applied to young people in New Zealand.⁴

What is youth culture?

It should go without saying, but youth are not homogeneous – and any discussion on youth culture needs to keep this firmly in mind. Yet, here we are going to look at what is distinctive about ‘youth culture’. Or, what makes ‘youth culture’ a culture.

Young people can share a range of cultural aspects that are distinct from those of the adults within their families/whānau and community. Cultural aspects can include interests, art forms, behaviours, language, music, lifestyle preferences, beliefs, clothing, sports, leisure activities, dating norms, etc.

When you observe a group of young people and identify a range of norms, behaviours, preferences and values distinct to those of older generations, you are looking at what we can call youth culture.

While young people share culture with adults in their community and with mainstream New Zealand society, they also share culture with each other.

Task: Can you identify youth culture in New Zealand?

Think about modern examples of youth culture – young people you know or work with, or those you have seen in the media.

• What are things that make this generation distinct to earlier generations (like when you or your parents were a similar age)?
• What are some things that make different groups of young people distinct from each other?

Organise some of your observations under these headings:

• Personal appearance
• Entertainment preferences
• Challenging norms
• Fitting in with peers

Look at the observations you have made. How would you answer these questions?

• What role does socio-economic background or class play in the youth culture you observed? Who gets to participate and who is excluded?
• What role does ethnicity, immigration or a minority religious background play in what makes up the youth culture you observed?

What is youth culture today?

Task: Does youth culture today function like it did back in the day?

Read these two articles. One gives a UK perspective⁵ and the other is from the New Zealand Herald.⁶

Youth subcultures: what are they now? | Music | The Guardian

Forget Goths, punks and emos, these are the new teenage tribes - NZ Herald

Based on your observations in the previous activity and these two articles, how would you answer these questions?

• What is different about today’s youth culture to past youth cultures?
• What is similar?
• What is a subculture? How do the young people in the articles relate to the idea of a subculture?
• What role does the internet play in today’s youth culture?
• What is the relationship of today’s youth culture to:

1. capitalism and consumption?
2. politics?
3. the past and older generations within their community?
4. the future – their own; or society and the world in general?
5. mainstream culture?
6. identity and the development of identity?

What is identity?

At the beginning of this course you learned about some well-known theories of human development. Remember Erikson’s theory on the stages of development in which the key task of adolescence is to develop a positive sense of self. During this stage young people start to seriously question identity; and are usually highly sensitive and self-conscious of their identity. They search for answers – who am I? Where do I fit in?

But what is identity? This description is by ACT for Youth, a New York-based youth development organisation:^{7 8}

Self vs. Social identity

A distinction is made between self-identity and social identity.

Self-identity:

• is how we define ourselves
• must be positive for positive self-esteem
• changes in response to peers, family, school, social environments
• shapes our perception of how we see ourselves as belonging or fitting in.

Social identity:

• is constructed by others – often in broad terms with socially-defined labels and stereotypes
• may be different to self-identity
• can have social value – different social identities are valued differently by society
• may need extra support for some young people to build a positive sense of self, especially if society is hostile to or devalues their social identity.

What is identity development?

Many different aspects of our self-identity and social identity interact and weave together. Critical aspects for identity can include race, ethnicity, gender, economic situation, social class, religion, politics and age.

Erikson argued that in adolescence, we must successfully resolve our internal conflicts to form a strong, secure sense of who we are. If we are unable to do this, our sense of who we are is likely to be weak and confused. And this will make it difficult to form close, healthy, intimate bonds and relationships with others later in life.

Psychologist James Marcia agreed with Erikson that we must resolve our adolescent identity crisis/turning point through interactions with others, but he argued that it did not happen in stages; rather identity development is a non-linear process. Marcia proposed a model with four ‘statuses’ that each young person must successfully resolve for the different aspects of their identity.

Identity exploration 

Giving young people the space to explore identity has long-term benefits, but the process can be unsettling and uncomfortable at the time. Young people often need extra social and emotional guidance and support to explore safely.
Benefits of identity exploration:

• High levels of exploration and high levels of commitment usually lead to better life outcomes.
• Engaging in identity exploration in adolescence is linked to an ability to adapt to change, higher self-esteem and stronger life purpose later in adulthood.

But support and guidance are often necessary:

• Identity exploration comes with identity confusion and/or feeling a lack of certainty about one’s identity.
• Identity confusion can increase depression and anxiety.

Task: Who am I? Where do I fit?

Think about some of the young people you know well. Have you observed any of the four statuses of identity development in these young people?

• What are some examples of identity exploration you have observed?
• What are some examples of identity commitment you have observed?
• Benefits of identity commitment are a more positive sense of self, higher satisfaction with life, and fewer symptoms of depression or anxiety. Have you seen examples of this?

While we focus on young people here, identity development is a life-long process. Our identity (‘Who am I? Where do I fit in?’) can change as we experience life at any age – for example, when we enter the workforce or become a parent.

Explore further

This short article is based on research on identity formation in American adolescents, but you may find it a useful summary of this topic that relies on an Erikson framework.⁹

For resources specifically related to ethnic and racial identity development, or gender and sexual orientation, you may find these resources a useful starting point.¹⁰

Youth culture and identity formation

As young people transition from childhood to adulthood, they look for answers to the questions: Who am I? Where do I fit? Engaging with youth culture is a way to help resolve these tensions of identity alongside exploring questions: What do I value? What do I like?

Young people engage with, form, or move in and out of ‘groups’ as a way to explore identity and eventually form identity commitments. Groups are important because they enable questions like Who am I? to become Who are we? Where do we fit in or outside of society? What do we value? What do people like us like? What are our beliefs, values and lifestyle preferences? What is our relationship to the mainstream?

Groups or cultures that young people become part of may be exclusive to others of a similar age. Or they can include adults with similar interests or beliefs. Groups may or may not have clear boundaries or rituals of inclusion or exclusion.

Positive identity development enables young people to learn how to ‘fit in’ with society in ways that are meaningful and satisfying for them. However, some forms of identity commitment can make a successful transition into adulthood more difficult. Young people need to safely engage with an identity exploration process that supports and guides them over the ‘rough patches’. While young people are exploring, the right intervention can help prevent identity commitments that may be detrimental for their future adult life.

Mentoring young people

Role models for young people are those that enable them to imagine different options for their future selves. We can help young people by finding role models in their family, school or community who they can look up to and see themselves reflected in. When young people can spend time with positive role models it becomes possible for them to change how they see their future selves.

Task: Positive identity formation

What can you do to help support positive identity formation in young people? How can you help them to imagine different options for their future selves?

Read this fact sheet from NZ Youth Mentoring Network titled How to help a young person explore their identity and culture.¹¹ Think about how the advice might apply to your own work context.

For the young people you work with, consider these questions:

• Who could act as positive role models?

• How do you approach conversations about values, goals and identities?

• Do you think these young people would be interested in knowing how you made decisions in your life? And who you want to be, or wanted to be at their age?

• How do you support identity commitments? And identity exploration?

• What could help them to feel more grounded and to deal with feelings of confusion as they explore identity and decide when to make commitments?

Develop active listening skills

Active listening means:

• Get physically close to someone when they are speaking.
• Give them your full attention; look at them so they know they are heard and taken seriously.
• Let them talk without interruption.
• Do not ask questions that distract from where they are leading the conversation (even when it is difficult).
• Focus on what they are saying; stop thinking about what you are going to say next.
• Use cues to show you are listening and want them to keep talking – nod your head or make comments like “I see,” “That sounds hard,” etc.

Building relationships needs good communication. One of the most important things you can do to build communication is to really pay attention to what the other person is saying with an intention to learn from and understand their point of view. When you listen, you do not need to agree with what the other person is saying.

Active listening takes the pressure off you to have all the answers and solve all the problems. When someone can sense that you really want to understand them, they are more likely to ask what you think. You should not need to impose your opinion on them. Active listening can help you to engage more honestly and productively and lessen conflict caused by misunderstanding.

Tips to improve active listening:

• Practise paying attention; if your mind starts to wander, keep bringing it back to what you want to focus on.
• When you talk with a young person, remove distractions and interruptions – turn off your phone or TV, stop multi-tasking, maybe even find a quieter, more private place to talk. Send the non-verbal message that they have your complete, undivided attention and that what they have to say right now is the most important thing on your agenda.
• Practise focusing on what the other person is saying and shut down thinking about what you need to say next. Wait until they ask for your input and then give your honest response.
• Demonstrate that you are trying to understand – for example, repeat back to the other person what you have heard them say in your own words. And when you do, suspend your judgement on what you heard, try to just state the facts.
• Invite the young person you are talking with to say more. Young people often need to be encouraged to express their emotions or point of view; especially those who are used to adults ignoring them or reacting badly to their honest self-expression.

When to be concerned?

Sometimes you may notice things that concern you, like a young person who is especially moody or seems to be looking for fights or trouble. It can take time to get them to tell you what is going on. While it is normal for all of us to be moody sometimes, to act out or to be tired or lethargic, if it is happening a lot it can be a sign that something deeper is going on.

Once you have a relationship with a young person, you may be able to say something privately like, “You seem a little sad/tense/distracted lately. What’s worrying you at the moment?” If they brush you off, let them know that you will continue to be available if they do want to talk. The best way to deal with this type of situation is to focus on building positive relationships and communications when things appear to be fine. When a young person feels they can trust you, that you care about them and will actively listen to them, they are more likely to open up when there is a problem.

Warning signs of something serious like depression or anxiety:

• low moods, crying or tearfulness, expression of hopelessness
• aggression or antisocial behaviour
• sudden changes in behaviour (without an obvious reason)
• broken sleep, erratic sleep patterns or not sleeping
• noticeable changes in appetite or weight
• changes in school performance – ‘good’ student with sudden drop in work quality or attendance.

If you notice signs that concern you, get professional advice from a colleague, school counsellor, supervisor, mental health worker or other youth worker.

You and youth culture

Often when we think about youth culture we focus on the young people and what is happening for them. However, we also need to think about our own position in relation to youth culture.

When we interact with and work with young people, we bring our assumptions about them and their culture into that space. The first time we meet or see someone, we can get an impression of who they are and what they are like based not on who they actually are but on our assumptions of who we think they will be. We think we know them based on how they present themselves and what we think that presentation signifies.

Each young person is an individual engaged in the process of identity development. And we are meeting them at one moment of their journey. Just as youth culture is not fixed, how a young person engages with youth culture, mainstream culture or other culture is not fixed either.

Young people are not defined by culture, but they are using it to develop, express or hide their sense of self – who they really are. Exploring identity can involve trying culture and identity on for size. Presentation or behaviour should not be confused with commitment to an identity. As young people navigate identity and culture, they need guidance, support and space to learn, explore and even fail.

Think about these questions:

• Am I aware of the assumptions and first impressions I am bringing into my interactions?

• What are my responses and feelings towards youth culture?

• What am I projecting onto someone based on how they are presenting themselves?

As you develop relationships based on who people ‘really are’, you start to appreciate the complexity of both the culture(s) they are engaging with and their changing relationship to those cultures. You can appreciate the complexity of the identity development process as it relates to background, culture and individual personality.

Youth culture and young people are diverse, dynamic, complex and fluid. While ‘youth culture’ is a helpful concept, it can become a problem if it is used to codify or stereotype individuals, and to define (limit) or categorise their potential. Young people are primarily engaged with navigating a transition – Who am I? Where do I fit? The journey they are on to find out who they are and where they belong should be respected, supported, and even celebrated.

Explore further

One way to help yourself in relation to youth culture is to focus attention on who you are in relation to a young person’s identity development journey. How does your own identity and how you developed that identity intersect with youth work practice?

You should find this paper on the use of self in youth work practice interesting as an optional extra reading.¹²
 

Can you explain ‘youth culture’ as a concept and provide examples?

Do you understand the relationship between youth culture and a young person’s developing identity?

Are you aware of how you interact and engage with youth culture?

What is your level of knowledge and awareness of how young people today are engaging with youth culture and how it impacts them and their sense of self?

You are now ready for Task 1 of Assessment 1.3.