Develop Program Plans

Requires oxygen as a fuel source to power the muscles. Long term adaptations include: Cardiorespiratory endurance, increased speed and agility, and weight management. Includes activities such as walking, jogging, swimming, cycling and skipping.

Examples of training methods that utilise endurance (aerobic) training:

• Continuous.

• Fartlek.

• Interval.

• Circuit.

Timing for noticeable adaptation: One - Two months. Although some benefits such as improved heart rate and blood pressure may be noticeable in as little as two weeks.

Requires Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) as well as Creatine Phosphate (PCr) as the fuel source to create short bursts of high-inensity energy exercises. Other fuel sources used for longer exercise sessions include aerobic (requiring oxygen) and/or anaerobic (requiring glucose).  Long term adaptations include: Increased muscular size (hypertrophy), strength and power, improved bone strength and density, and weight maintenance. 

Examples of training methods that utilise strength training:

• Plyometric.

• Resistance.

• Circuit.

The differences between hypertrophy and strength training are:

• Hypertrophy (increased muscle size) - More sets and reps. Intensity is slightly decreased and rest periods between sets are generally 1 to 3 minutes. Hypertrophy (specifically sarcoplasmic hypertrophy) helps to build local muscle endurance.

• Strength training (increased muscle strength and power) - Fewer reps with greater intensity (heavier weights). Rest periods between sets are generally 3 to 5 minutes.

Muscular hypertrophy consists of two facets:

1. Myofibrillar - Growth of muscle contraction parts known as motor units (skeletal muscle + motor neurons) sometimes referred to as muscles fibres. There are three types of motor units: Type 1 (slow-twitch), Type 2A (intermediate fast-twitch), and Type 2B (fast-twitch). Fast-twitch motor units are used for sprinting and weight lifting as they require short powerful bursts of energy. Slow-twitch motor units are used for endurance exercise as it means more oxygen is available for the muscles.

2. Sarcoplasmic - Increased muscle glycogen storage, thus improving local muscle endurance. This improvement in endurance allows the muscle (or a group of muscles) to sustain repeated contractions against submaximal resistance for a sustained period of time.

The act of weight lifting results in mechanical damage to muscle fibres and also metabolic fatigue. The body is then stimulated to repair this damage resulting in increased muscle size and also larger energy (ATP) storage. 

Timing for noticeable adaptation: For beginners within eight weeks. This time period may be reduced to as little as three or four weeks in more experienced weight lifters.

Some examples of specific strength training programs are:

Flexibility is essentially the ability to move the joints through their full range of motion. Muscles are primarily responsible for joint movement (in conjunction with other components such as tendons, ligaments and the nervous system).

Stretching muscles which can help prevent injury and/or discomfort by allowing lactic acid buildup to subside and easing tense muscles. Types of flexibility exercise include:

• Ballistic - Moving the body or an individual limb beyond its normal range of motion and repeating this movement in a bouncing or jerking movement (ie. repeatedly bending down to touch toes). NOTE: This type of stretching is NOT recommended for inexperienced clients as it can cause injury.

• Dynamic - Gradually stretching parts of the body to increase reach and/or speed. Uses controlled, gentle movements (ie. leg swings, arms swings or torso twists). 

• Static (Active) - Assuming a certain position and holding it with no assistance other than muscle strength (ie. isometric exercises like plank and some yoga poses like chair or tree).

• Static (Passive) - Assuming a certain position and holding it with the assistance of another part of your body or a training partner or a form of apparatus (ie. bringing the leg up high and stretching it against a wall).

Dynamic stretching is normally recommended before a workout, whilst static stretching (either active or passive) are better after a workout. Stretching is not recommended in the case of acute muscle soreness as this may increase damage.

Timing for noticeable adaptation: Approximately two - three months with regular daily practice.

Particularly beneficial for elderly clients who are at risk of falls and also obese people because weight is not always evenly distributed around the body. Helps to improve proprioception (spatial awareness).

Examples of training methods that utilise balance training:

• Yoga. This method of training is particularly good for building muscle endurance, specific poses focus on local muscles.

• Pilates. Helps to correct muscle imbalance which can affect posture and stability. 

• Tai Chi.

• Rehabilitative training to regain skill and control after an injury or medical condition. Fitness balls and wobble boards are common equipment items utilised.

Timing for noticeable adaptation: Approximately two - three months with regular sessions, depending on the reason for balance issues. For example, balance should improve fairly quickly if the underlying reason was muscle imbalance or obesity and these conditions are corrected. However, if the underlying reason was a medical condition such as a stroke or Meniere's disease the recovery time may be extended and very gradual.

This training method builds dynamic strength, power or muscular endurance by moving joints through a full range of motion against an external resistance. Fitness is developed by increasing the level of resistance and/or the number of repetitions and sets performed. For beginners, resistance training should be limited to two non-consecutive days per week, with between 8-10 types of exercises and between 8-12 repetitions per exercise. Frequency can be increased gradually as strength and experience grow.

Equipment used includes:

• Dumbbells.

• Barbells.

• Resistance/weight machines.

• Pulleys.

• Bodyweight.

• Kettlebells.

• Resistance bands.

• Sandbags.

Anaerobic (requiring glucose) exercise which results in increased power (strength x speed) and overall strength. It involves a short burst of energy to undertake a specific movement. Examples include squats, jumping, stair climbing, and push-ups. 

This method of training is often high-impact and can negatively affect joints. Of particular concern are the hips and knees. Some tips for avoiding injury include:

• Warm up - Never start exercising with plyometric activities, always undertake a light cardiovascular warm-up and stretching routine first.

• Avoid hard surfaces - Consider outdoor grassed areas or indoor areas with appropriate floor padding. 

• Wear appropriate footwear - Cushioning is required.

• Avoid overexertion - Stop if the client feels any pain, discomfort, or dizziness.

• Gradually build intensity - Start with easier low-impact exercises and gradually increase the difficulty level and/or added weight. 

The client rotates through various individual stations (usually between five and ten) that usually consist of machines or the use of other equipment. Repetitions (the number of one complete motion of exercise), sets (a planned group of repetitions) and the number of rotations around the circuit can be varied or gradually increased as fitness improves. Jogging on the spot in-between stations can help to sustain an elevated heart rate.

When setting up a circuit training session the layout of equipment and the number of participants must be taken into consideration. Equipment must be adequately spaced to allow for safe mounting, use, observation, and dismounting. The number of participants within a circuit training area shouldn't be full capacity as bottlenecks will develop due to some exercises and their associated equipment taking longer to set-up, undertake and pack-away, spacing participants out will ensure a smooth flow and maintain elevated heart rate between stations.

Benefits of circuit training sessions include; can tackle weight loss, strength, athletic performance and core training, they are very easy to set up and they need minimum space and equipment, increases exercise adherence, versatile and can work with one client or many, can be adapted to any situation and any client specific need, they can be an entire session or a tough finisher, increased social interaction during a workout, and a fantastic way to get multiple people involved in a session.

Aerobic exercise which involves increasing the heart rate (so that oxygen can be delivered to muscles) by performing constant full muscle motion at a low intensity for a sustained period of time.

Examples include:

• Jogging / Running.

• Stair climbing.

• Swimming.

• Cycling.

Fartlek is Swedish for speed play and is a form of continuous training during which the speed or terrain is varied so that both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems are stressed. For example,  a combination of sprinting, jogging or walking or a mix of uphill, downhill and flat running.  This training method improves cardiovascular fitness and muscular endurance.

Also known as High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), it involves periods of exercise or work (ie. running or speed peddling) followed by periods of rest.  It is effective at improving cardiovascular fitness, muscular endurance and speed. 

Muscle action, which is sometimes referred to as muscle contraction, can be broadly organised into three categories:

• Concentric - The proximal and distal muscle attachments move toward one another. This action involves lifting or rising movements. For example, lifting a barbell.

• Eccentric - The proximal and distal muscle attachments move away from one another. This action involves a releasing movement and works in tandem with concentric actions. For example, lowering a barbell.

• Isometric - The proximal and distal muscle attachments do not move relative to one another. This action involves a static contraction without joint movement. For example, plank.

Relates to specific individual programs and will vary from client to client depending on their goals, lifestyle, and/or sporting requirements. 

Dynamic stretching is normally recommended before a workout. This is because this form of stretching uses controlled, gentle movements (ie. leg swings, arms swings or torso twists) and doesn't require much exertion which may prematurely tire the muscles.

A brief (5-12 minutes) cardio warm-up routine (low to moderate intensity) is recommended before undertaking strength training. 

For strength training the following rule applies for most clients: More demanding exercises should be performed before less demanding exercises.

This essentially means:

• Bigger muscles should be worked before smaller muscles.

• Compound exercises (working multiple muscle groups at once) before isolation exercises

• Free weight/bodyweight exercises before machines.

Note: If the client is undertaking pre-fatigue style training then this rule does not apply (at least not when actively practising pre-fatigue).

Static stretching (either active or passive) are better after a workout. This type of stretching involves holding a position for an extended period of time and can tire muscles inhibiting ability to undertake an effective workout. 

Training load is defined as the sum of all the training undertaken. The main components of training load are volume, intensity, and frequency. These must be increased or decreased in training to find the optimal load, for instance, shorter high-intensity training (e.g. HIIT) or longer training that is less intensive (e.g. base training). 

Training load is important because it allows the body to constantly adapt to training, and improves fitness levels.

• Volume is the duration/distance of a particular training session. It can be measured by the hours and minutes of activity at the highest level (such as on a treadmill) or the number of sets and reps completed in a workout. If hybrid training is undertaken, such as circuits or intervals, the volume might involve both duration and reps.

• Intensity is the amount of work exerted for every rep. It is measured by the weight lifted or the pace at which an exercise is performed. The Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale provides a guide to intensity levels.

• Frequency is the repetition of volume and intensity over many training sessions.

Increasing exercise volume improves fitness and endurance. The increasing intensity builds muscle mass and strength.

Sets and Repetitions (Reps) are the terms used to describe the number of times a particular exercise is performed:

• Repetition - One full action of an exercise. For example, if a person completes one bicep curl holding a hand weight this is one repetition.

• Set - A group of repetitions of exercises. For example, a person might complete ten bicep curls in a set which would be one set made up of ten bicep curl repetitions.

Selecting the appropriate amount of sets and reps for a fitness program is very important to achieving optimum load and volume. It will be dependent on the client's desired outcome, their current strength or fitness level, the type of exercise, and the amount of resistance used in the exercise.

Repetition velocity refers to the speed of each set of repetitions performed during a training session. Faster repetitions usually result in higher hormone responses and greater metabolic costs. 

Adaptations that occur as a result of adjusting repetition velocity (and the associated velocity rates required) include:

• Strength (more weight, fewer repetitions, longer rest time) - 1 - 2 seconds for concentric and eccentric muscle actions.

• Hypertrophy (less weight, more repetitions, less rest time) - 2 - 5 seconds for concentric and eccentric muscle actions.

• Endurance (less weight, more repetitions) - 1 - 2 seconds for concentric and eccentric muscle actions.

• Power (less weight, longer rest periods, focussing on the speed of execution) - Less than 1 second concentric, 1 - 2 seconds eccentric.

The chance of injury to the musculoskeletal system increases as the velocity of repetitions increases.

Short rest intervals (seconds and minutes) are scheduled in between different sets and activities, and longer rest intervals (days) are allocated to break up a long-term exercise program to promote adaptation/recovery.

Recovery allows muscles to increase the proteins in their overall structure to improve strength, replenish, and increase energy stores. The consumption of appropriate quantities of carbohydrate and protein food items after exercise will help to speed up the recovery process. 

In regards to determining appropriate durations for the shorter rest periods there are some formal ratios that can be used:

1. Aerobic (Cardio) Ratio - 1:1 (For every minute of vigorous exercise there is an equal duration of rest/slower pace), this could be increased to 1:0.5 (for every minute of vigorous exercise complete 30 seconds of rest/slower pace).

2. Anaerobic (Short burst exercise: jumping, sprinting, weight lifting etc...) Ratio - 1:5 or more (For every minute of vigorous exercise complete five minutes of rest/slower pace).

Training frequency is the number of training sessions completed during a given span of time. The type of training, client status and their ability to recover should be considered when determining the frequency of training sessions. The rest period between sessions must be sufficient to allow for development and recuperation while lowering the chance of injuries and setbacks that are attributable to overtraining.

Frequency is divided into components:

• Overall frequency - Total number of workout sessions per week, including weight training, cardio, classes, etc... This will vary depending on the individual, however, one rule that applies to everyone is: Take at least one full day off per week from all types of exercise. This is essential for recovery.

• Weight training frequency - Ideally this should occur between three and four days per week, however not for more than two consecutive days in a row.

• Muscle group/body part frequency - This is another varied frequency type. Some people train each muscle group once per week. For example, Monday: Chest/Triceps, Tuesday: Back/Biceps, Thursday: Shoulders/Abs, Friday: Legs. Other people divide their body into upper and lower body regions and exercise those muscle groups twice per week. For example, Monday & Thursday: Upper body, Tuesday & Friday: Lower body. Finally, some people train their full-body three days per week with a full day off in between each session.

Ensuring that the specific exercises that are conducted throughout the fitness session are selected to enhance the body in the ways that are needed for the participant’s sport of choice.

For example, a marathon runner will require endurance and strength training as well as running technique, whereas, a weightlifter is more focussed on strength and power.

If the client is simply interested in achieving general fitness then this principle does not apply.

Training needs to be catered to each individual. The training program that is designed for a client is dependent upon many factors, which may include:

• The desired outcome of training. Some clients will have very specific goals in mind. It is important that they are aware of work-load, dedication, and sacrifices that will be required to achieve their goal/s.

• Capacity to train. Workloads, family commitments, and logistical issues all present barriers regarding the capacity to exercise. Motivation and commitment levels may also affect a client's attendance.

• Health issues and injuries. Pre-exercise health questionnaires are designed to ascertain the health and injury-related risks related to exercise and allow you to formulate appropriate programs accordingly.

• Amount of time that can be allotted to training. People lead very busy lives, they may appreciate programs which deliver results in shorter time periods rather than sustained endurance style routines. Others, such as retirees, may prefer the slow and steady approach as they have plenty of time available.

• Physical and neurological status of the client. Disabilities can affect a wide range of body systems and create barriers both physically and cognitively. Allowing safe access to these clients is essential through careful program planning and monitoring.

• Preferences and dislikes in relation to different exercise types. Some people dislike aerobics, others love swimming, some people prefer to exercise alone whilst others enjoy the socialisation of a large group activity. 

• Financial constraints. Having a wide variety of service packages and payment plans available is advisable to ensure everyone has the opportunity to participate.

• Religious restrictions. Discretion and respect is required. Things to consider include the preference or restriction to not mix in mixed-gender classes or environments, and also the need to wear conservative clothing.

The principle of progression describes the gradual development of a participant's physical work capacity by carefully increasing the training stress. Overload means to load to excess. Pushing your body to do work it’s not accustomed to doing.

One of the aims of a fitness program is to increase progressive overload and thus reach the optimum training threshold. The concept of gradually increasing the exercise demand/weight on the body to achieve continuous improvement. 

Applying progressive overload increases is best done in distinct phases of approximately 3-4 weeks duration. Each new phase will have similar goals but will be slightly different and/or harder than the previous phase.

This tactic, known as phasing, allows the body to become accustomed to a particular type of exercise and begin the process of adaptation without overexerting too much and causing too much damage/injury.

The human body must be put under stress or overloaded in order to benefit from exercising. If the body is not overloaded enough, exercise will not be beneficial. If the body is overloaded too much it may experience damage or injury.

Training threshold is the balance between the two that allows the body to maximise the benefits of exercising without overloading to the point of injury, however, it must be gradually increased in phases to ensure continued benefits.

Phasing can also assist with boosting motivation as the various phases set-up within the exercise program can be seen as mini benchmarks which instil a sense of achievement once each has been accomplished. 

The exercise zones which include training threshold are:

FITT is an acronym that has been developed to assist with achieving progressive overload. It stands for: 

• Frequency - The number of exercise sessions undertaken in a week. For example: 5 moderate or 3 intense cardio sessions, and 2-3 strength training sessions.  

• Intensity - Adjusting how hard the workout is by gradually increasing weights/resistance, speed or incline angle. The rating of perceived exertion (RPE) is a scale which helps to measure intensity. The RPE scale is from 1 - 10 where 1 = Very Light Activity; 2 - 3 = Light Activity; 4 - 6 = Moderate Activity; 7 - 8 = Vigorous Activity; 9 = Very Hard Activity; 10 = Maximum Effort Activity.

• Time - Increasing the length of the workout by adding more repetitions, sets or overall duration.

• Type of exercise - Varying the types of exercise and the methods within each type: For example: during a cardio component of a program one session may use a treadmill and the next session an exercise bike.  There may also be some variation within a strength component with different resistance (weights) machines used on different days as part of a circuit.

When developing and later evaluating a client's training program this principle will help to better align with the client's goals (by seeing results earlier), increase their motivation and reduce boredom by introducing variety.

The Intensity, time and type of exercise can all be amended depending on the client's current fitness level, pre-exercise screening results, and/or motivation levels. A gradual increase in intensity is recommended over time. 

Adaptation is the body’s reaction to training and occurs during recovery. The neurological and muscular systems increase their abilities to cope with specified amounts of work and exertion. The muscles will have more energy available to exert force as a result of adaptation.  The rate of adaptation depends on the volume, intensity and frequency of exercises.

Acute (immediate/short term) effects on the human body occur primarily in these bodily systems:

• Muscular - Depletion of fuels such as creatine phosphate and glycogen. Increase in temperature of muscles. Muscle soreness and stiffness (muscle tension), can be a delayed reaction and might be felt for 24 - 72 hours after exercise.

• Neuromuscular - Tiring of muscles (fatigue).

• Endocrine - Increase of endorphins and certain hormones such as insulin, glucagon, cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine, testosterone, human growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor.

• Respiratory (Pulmonary) - Increased breathing rate.

• Cardiovascular - Increase in heart rate.

• Energy system - Increase in lactic acid (lactate) production, used to fuel muscles during glycolysis.

• Thermoregulation - Increased production of sweat to act as a cooling system. Certain conditions may occur such as heat stress.

Chronic (gradual/long term) responses are also apparent in the following systems:

• Neuromuscular - Neural pathways linking to target muscles become more efficient at transmitting messages (stimulus). Muscle contractions become more co-ordinated.

• Muscular - Strength increases due to neural and nervous system changes that build stronger links to the muscle cells allowing a change in muscle memory. Changes to muscle fibres. Increases in the threshold before muscles start to produce lactic acid. Increased fuel storage in muscles. Increased blood supply. Increased strength in tendons, ligaments and bones.

• Skeletal - Increases in bone density and strength. Improved range of movement in the joints.

• Cardiovascular - Increases to metabolic rate, heart rate function, heart cavity size, blood volume. Decreases in blood pressure and resting heart rate.

• Respiratory (Pulmonary) - Increased vital capacity (lung capacity) and tidal volume. Decrease in breathing rate. Strengthened respiratory muscles such as the external intercostals and diaphragm.

• Nervous - Stronger sensory development. Quicker motor neuron communication. Muscle memory is created within the nervous system. The reaction time between the brain and muscle movement will increase. 

• Body composition - Improvements in weight, tone, and hydration. 

• Thermoregulation - Acclimatisation occurs if the intensity of exercise is gradually increased in an area with elevated temperatures or humidity. As other systems and overall body composition improve thermoregulation is eased.

• Energy system - Increased production of energy from the aerobic energy system. Increased tolerance to lactic acid.

Timing for noticeable adaptation:

• Acute or short term adaptation will occur anywhere from immediately after exercise until approximately 72 hours later. These adaptations will lessen as an individual becomes accustomed to a particular exercise or routine unless progressive overload is applied.

• Chronic or long term adaptation will begin approximately four weeks after commencing a regular fitness routine, however, some individuals may take as long as 16 weeks to see full adaptations.

Once clients reach their desired level of fitness it is possible to reduce the frequency of exercise (up to one third) and maintain the results as long as the intensity and duration of sessions is the same.

Reversibility is a risk factor if a training program is not implemented properly. Progress can be reversed if the client over-trains themselves to the point of exhaustion and then stops for a significant period of time, or if training sessions are erratic.