Submitted by sylvia.wong@up…
on Fri, 12/09/2022 - 01:55
In this section, you will learn to:
Identify and access sources of information on learning theories.
Evaluate information and identify potential practice implications.
Document and organise information to support current and future practice.
Supplementary materials relevant to this section:
Reading G: Critical Thinking for Dummies
Reading H: Art of Reading a Journal Article
Reading I: Behavioural Treatment of Obesity
You were introduced to the concept of research in the previous module. As you may remember, keeping up-to-date with new developments in counselling and best-practice guidelines is a crucial component of ethical practice. It is important that your counselling practice is evidence-based and that the interventions and strategies you use with clients are well-researched and have been shown to work for that client’s particular issue. In this section, you will revisit these vital steps in research, including sourcing and organising relevant theoretical and practice-relevant information related to learning theories. Crucially, you will learn how to critically evaluate the information you come across. This will help you to determine whether the information is likely to be reliable and useful and whether it should inform your counselling practice.
Sub Topics
As you will recall from the previous module, written information about counselling, or ‘literature’ as it is often referred to, includes information about theories, approaches, interventions, and particular issues. Professional literature can be found in different types of texts and publications, particularly textbooks, academic journals, and publications by reputable professional and research bodies. This includes research, practice implications of research and practice findings. You will also find information in other forms, such as professional training. When it comes to staying up-to-date with learning theory and their applications in counselling practice, you will be able to source information from all of these. For example:
Textbooks: Learning theories are included in many introductory textbooks and professional texts relating to the topic specifically and those that focus more broadly on human development. Behavioural techniques and approaches to counselling are also included in general counselling and psychology textbooks and in books aimed at those in counselling and psychology practice.
Research articles: Numerous journals are devoted to behavioural therapy and behavioural change more broadly. Two of the most prominent journals dedicated to behavioural therapy, in particular, are Behavior Therapy and Behaviour ResearchandTherapy (Nelson-Jones, 2015). Many (if not most) of the articles relevant to the use of learning theories in counselling, however, are cognitive behavioural rather than purely behavioural in nature. Remember, while it is useful to source articles within counselling-focussed platforms, you will frequently find relevant literature in journals relating to social work, psychology, and the behavioural and social sciences, and occasionally those for fields such as public health, education (learning is the main agenda in education, after all!), and so on.
Professional bodies: The websites and magazines of and training provided by professional bodies can be valuable sources of information. The Australian Association for Cognitive and Behaviour Therapy (AACBT), for example, is a professional body engaged in research and training in cognitive, cognitive behavioural, and behavioural therapies (you can find out more from their website: www.aacbt.org). Members of AACBT have access to the body’s journal – Behaviour Change – which publishes research involving the application of behavioural and cognitive behavioural principles and techniques in assisting clients with a range of problems.
Professional development: There are a range of professional development opportunities when it comes to helping clients make behavioural changes. For instance, you can find a list of conferences and workshops on the AACBT website under the ‘events’ tab. AACBT also offers a series of webinars (i.e., online seminars) for its members. Though training in behaviour therapy is available, the most relevant training is cognitive behavioural rather than purely behavioural in orientation. There is also training available for other interventions that assist with behaviour change, such as training in motivational interviewing.
To help you stay up to date with developments in learning theories and their applications in counselling, you will need to subscribe to journals, join organisations that provide access to journals, or subscribe to journal databases for access to articles. You may also find relevant articles that are freely available online through online searches, journal websites, and sites like ResearchGate.
5 Learning Theories
This video discusses five learning theories, how they work and how they differ from each other.
Watch
Professional groups such as psychologists, nurses, doctors, and other allied health professionals have long been exposed to research, critical thinking, and evaluation processes. Critical thinking and evaluation involve judging the worth, credibility, and strength of research, information, or a particular perspective. While this is not the case in all counsellor training, counsellors are increasingly expected to develop these skills as well (Reeves, 2013). The fact is that many sources, including some very prestigious ones, present information that is incorrect or outdated, so we should not simply accept everything we read or are told, even when the source is a good one. Even the best educated and best-intentioned sources are misinformed, mistaken, or outdated at times.
It is important to note that critically evaluating a piece of information does not necessarily mean finding fault in the information. Rather, taking in information critically means not merely believing or accepting everything that you read but analysing and evaluating the ideas or arguments presented. Sometimes it means withholding a judgement about whether the information is correct or incorrect and being prepared to neither believe nor disbelieve it until further evidence confirms or contradicts it.
Read
Reading G – Critical Thinking for Dummies will teach you a range of skills for critically evaluating resources. As Cohen (2015) explains, this is particularly important in health and human services fields, because using inaccurate information to guide practice can have real-world negative effects on clients. The reading explores some traps that we are all vulnerable to, as well as serious issues and errors that occur even in research and professional literature. (It is unfortunately true that while something published in academic or professional literature is more likely to be credible and accurate than many other sources, this is not always the case!). There are two exercises for you to you do at the end of the reading to practice using critical reading skills. We suggest you also challenge yourself to identify anything in the reading itself that the author might identify as problematic if someone else had written it!
As you learn about learning theories, you need to critically consider the quality of the information, both before you start engaging with it and while you do so. When reading for professional purposes (whether about learning theories or anything else), there are a number of questions to ask before you even start:
Who are the authors? What are their qualifications and experience? Do they work for a university or other research body? Do they have professional affiliations? Note that while the internet is an extremely valuable resource, you need to carefully evaluate web-based resources, too, particularly if they are not retrieved from a credible source or platform.
What was the writing and publishing process? Has this publication been peer-reviewed? Were the reviewers appropriately qualified? The peer review process means that multiple people with relevant expertise, and who should be independent from the authors of the work, have critically reviewed it. As such, a peer-reviewed source is generally a more reliable choice than one that has not been subjected to the peer review process. However, this is not a perfect process – some articles have passed peer review despite being shockingly inaccurate and having dreadful effects – so make sure you still critically evaluate the material. And remember that textbooks and professional publications are not necessarily peer-reviewed; you might need to do some digging to find out whether there has been a peer-review process.
When was it written? With continuous developments in research and practice, you will need up-to-date information. Reading older texts that are relevant to a theoretical orientation or the history of counselling and related fields (known as ‘foundational texts’) can be useful, but the positions taken and any research findings cited in them should be queried. Be aware, too, that even very recent publications may use outdated knowledge. In addition, some recent publications are newer editions of older books, and while they should be thoroughly updated before each new edition, they often continue to rely on old research.
Is there a comprehensive reference list of authoritative sources? Are the references scholarly and peer-reviewed? Are there a wide variety of authors cited? If the author relies on a small group of authors for their references, or if the references are not of high-quality academic or professional works, this can indicate serious weaknesses in the material.
Is it a primary or secondary source? Primary sources report directly on research the authors have carried out and provide their ideas about why they found what they did. These are viewed by some as more authoritative than secondary sources. Primary sources can have any number of issues, however, including unintentional and deliberate misinformation. When reading primary sources, ask whether similar results have been found by others, what problems you can see in the research process, and whether contradictory findings or different explanations for the findings are possible. If you are reading a secondary source, it is useful to look up the reports of original research cited and other materials on the subject to see whether the view presented in the source accords with the research findings and perspectives of others with expertise in the area.
As you are reading, there are further things to consider, such as:
What is the author trying to achieve? Are they attempting to describe research, forward an agenda (e.g., political, professional, social, religious), or sell something? What does their purpose say about their credibility?
Are the claims supported or contradicted by other authoritative sources? Consider how well the material connects with what you have learned from other sources. There will be disagreements in professional literature, but when challenging an accepted position, the author should provide a solid argument and evidence base.
Is it appropriately referenced? While you should already have checked that there are references before reading, you now need to confirm that the references are being appropriately used. Is the author making claims without backing them up? If you check a reference, will the original source say what the author claims it says? Keep an eye out for the years of publication for the sources cited within the work, too; this can sometimes indicate that a recently published work relies on outdated research.
Are there signs of bias in the work? What are the biases? Has the author made a good-faith attempt to present and engage with ideas that challenge their position?
Knowing a bit about the author’s background and, if reading original research reports, the background of the study you are evaluating gives useful clues as to potential biases. If a particular group or industry funds a research study and they have a vested interest in the outcome, it is possible that there will be effects of that bias on how the study was conducted, to make it more likely that the results are likely to be or are presented in a way that is favourable to the funders. Similarly, a researcher whose profession relies on their showing through their research that an intervention is effective may be biased in the way they collect and analyse evidence (for example, asking questions likely to elicit the kind of responses that support their position), even if they do not do so consciously. If there is reason to suspect bias, consider taking the findings tentatively, looking at independent research into the same area, and sourcing different points of view (Learning and Information Services, 2014).
Even if there are no professional or financial consequences, if the author's perspective is inaccurate, they may still be biased regarding the information they consider because they prefer their own position. For example, an author who believes that a particular intervention is helpful might be biased in what they consider on the topic, ignoring research that challenges their position and writing an article that fails to consider alternatives.
Is there enough evidence? If you are reading a research article, the author should provide evidence to support the conclusions they have come to. Research-based claims may be incorrect for several reasons, including poor methodology; deliberate actions on the part of a researcher intended to skew the results; failure of the researchers to consider alternative explanations for their findings; and simple chance.
One factor you can quickly check on is a study's sample size (i.e., the number of participants). If the sample size is very low (e.g., twenty people), the findings are less likely to be trustworthy than if the sample size is much larger. (Although there are many other factors to consider to determine the validity of findings.) You must be critical of any research you read and tentative in taking it on board. Ideally, you should discuss it with experienced and knowledgeable colleagues or your supervisor before applying what you have learned in practice.
Arriving at this point, you may be slightly overwhelmed by the questions you need to consider when critically evaluating information (that is perfectly normal!). Regrettably, not all information is good quality (and some is deliberately misleading), so critical evaluation is necessary to help you determine if it is worth attending to. Fortunately, there are some great tools to make critical evaluation a friendlier task. One particularly memorable one was developed by university librarian Sarah Blakeslee (2004), called the CRAAP test.
As you can see in the following information, the CRAAP test provides a handy prompt to remind you of important questions to ask about the five criteria for evaluating sources and their information. We recommend using it because it is easy to remember the acronym, which will help you remember relevant questions to ask when evaluating information. All you need to do to get started is ask yourself, Is this CRAAP? We have listed two sample questions relevant to each aspect of CRAAP in the diagram, but we recommend that you familiarise yourself with a more comprehensive list of questions to ask when evaluating a resource, such as the Evaluating Information – Applying the CRAAP Test (pdf).
Currency: When was it published?; Has it been updated or revised?
Relevance: How relevant is it to your needs?; Who is it intended for?
Authority: Who is the author?; Are they qualified on this topic?
Accuracy: Is there evidence to support it?; Has it been peer-reviewed?
Purpose: What is the purpose of the information?; Is it objective and impartial?
The most effective way to learn critical evaluation is by practicing it. Consider the following extract. What would tell you that it is satirical and shouldn’t be believed?
DURHAM, NC—According to a study published Monday by researchers at Duke University’s Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, humans experience the most intense feelings of happiness when pressing the “skip ad” button before watching a video on the internet. “After measuring test subjects’ endorphin and serotonin levels during a variety of pleasurable activities, we found that the largest spikes in joy were recorded when participants stopped an online advertisement and initiated the video they actually wanted to watch,” said the study’s lead author, Dr. Paul Alleslev, who noted that feelings of bliss began rising as the timer indicating how soon the button would appear counted down toward zero. “Also, using fMRI scans, we noticed that once the ‘skip ad’ box became visible, the pleasure centers of the brain lit up with a flurry of activity, as did the motor cortex, prompting subjects to click the button with extraordinary speed as soon as it appeared onscreen.” Alleslev added, however, that humans appeared to experience the most acute feelings of rage after they’d watched enough videos that the “skip ad” option was no longer available.
The Onion, 2016
reflect
Reading a research article is not easy at first, let alone critically evaluating it. These lengthy articles often contain jargon that people without research or a scientific background struggle to understand. Luckily, with some guidance and a little practice, reading and making sense of research reports and other academic articles quickly becomes easier.
This is particularly lucky because reading and critically evaluating research studies is very useful. These are often the basis on which particular practices are used or avoided, drive best-practice guidelines changes, and ultimately help us determine what is and is not likely to help our clients.
Read
Reading H – Art of Reading a Journal Article provides a good starting point if you are unfamiliar with reading research articles. This article will give you an overview of the general structure of journal articles, what to look for in each section, and some guidance on where and how to start reading.
Using Information to Inform Practice
Having critically read and evaluated the information, you should have a better idea of whether the information is likely to be credible. Of course, if the information does not pass your critical evaluation, you will not need to consider this. If you think it is a credible source of information, you will need to determine the usefulness of the information to your practice. That is, how relevant is the information to your counselling practice, and if relevant, how might you use this information to improve your knowledge or practice? For instance, you may ask the following questions:
Does this information contribute to my knowledge base?
Does this information link theory and practice?
Are the findings applicable to my practice?
Does this information help me to understand the context of my practice?
Does this information help me understand my relationships with clients, their families, communities, and the healthcare system?
Are the recommendations/findings appropriate to my practice?
Are the recommendations/findings applicable to my client?
To help you better understand how to do this, let’s look at a case study where a counsellor critically evaluates an article to determine what they would do with the information they read. The article is included as Reading I – complete the reading before proceeding to the case study. Remember that you can review Reading H for guidance before and while working through Reading I.
Read
Reading I – Behavioural Treatment of Obesity is a journal article that looks at how behavioural treatment can be used to help individuals achieve a healthier weight by developing their skills.
Case Study
One of the clinic’s clients is being treated for obesity and has been referred to Elias for support as part of the treatment package. Elias has experience applying behavioural techniques but has not yet applied these techniques to obesity issues. He finds a peer-reviewed article that he thinks might be useful: Behavioural Treatment of Obesity by Foster, Makris, and Bailer (2005). It appears to be well supported, referencing numerous studies, and the authors mention other strategies besides behavioural ones, which will give him a broader view of the topic.
The article describes the theoretical underpinnings of the behaviourist approach and links these to specific behavioural treatments. Elias notes the techniques that have been used in weight loss programs. These include:
Self-monitoring (i.e., keeping food and activity records).
Stimulus control (i.e., controlling cues associated with eating).
Nutrition education.
Eating slowly.
Physical activity.
Problem-solving.
Cognitive restructuring.
Elias is familiar with some of the techniques from his practice in other areas, but rather than rushing to implement their techniques, Elias looks for evidence that the techniques actually work in cases of obesity. The article says that two techniques – self-monitoring and physical activity – have been tested in research studies and are consistently associated with short- and long-term weight control. Elias notes to look up these studies to see exactly how these strategies were implemented and what the researchers found. Elias also notes the other strategies that support behaviour change (e.g., food provision, meal replacement, pharmacotherapy, commercial weight loss programs), as these might be options recommended by the clinic’s doctors for some clients.
Elias is particularly interested in the psychological aspects of working with clients struggling with obesity, as described in the article. He notes that strategies involve talking to clients about weight, creating a user-friendly office, dealing with adherence issues and unrealistic expectations, and thinks about how he can incorporate these into his counselling practice.
Elias realises that the article is quite old – published in 2005 – and that it is not an exhaustive list of behavioural techniques that could be useful, so he makes a note to source more recent research to supplement the information given in the article. He notes “self-monitoring and physical activity are supported by evidence” in the client’s file and saves the article PDF in his ‘Research’ file, in a sub-file named ‘Eating and weight loss issues,’ for further reference.
Reflect on Case Study
Is there anything else you would take from the article that Elias has overlooked, or do you agree with his analysis?
Note that Elias did not rush into implementing the techniques identified in the article but used his critical thinking skills to evaluate the claims made about them. He noted what he found interesting and/or questionable and areas he wanted to research to help him decide whether the information would likely be useful for his practice.
If you ever feel unsure about changing your practice based on the information you have found, bring it to your supervisor or an experienced colleague for a critical discussion. Together, you can reflect on how the information relates to your area of practice and particular client issues, as well as if and how you should integrate it into your work. Your supervisor will also be able to help you consider the potential impact of practical issues, such as developing a plan for how you can become competent in applying a new intervention, as well as contextual issues, such as organisational procedures or ethical issues that could limit your ability to adjust your work practices in response to research.
When you find a resource that you think will guide your work, it is important to keep it to hand. You may need to refer to it later to refresh your understanding, correct something you misremembered, or justify your decision to use a particular approach or strategy. In addition to keeping the information, you need to ensure it is accessible. So we wrap up this unit with a quick look at storing, organising, and using professional resources.
Constructivism as a Philosophy of Research
This video introduces constructivism, its ontology and epistemology.
Watch
As mentioned in the previous module, it is good practice to develop and maintain a system for organising the information that you source. Whether you are using a paper-based system or electronic system, having an organised and well-functioning professional library is vital to ensure access to resources relevant to your practice whenever necessary. Imagine that you came across ten articles about Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory three weeks ago, and you want to find the one that discusses applications in group counselling. If you do not have an effective system for storing and organising resources, you will likely find yourself in the same position as many counsellors, saying, “I know I have the article I need somewhere. I just don’t know where it is!”
Think about how you might arrange professional publications regarding learning theories and their applications in counselling. Will you store them electronically or in hard copy? Will you use both types of systems?
With electronic access now the norm, many people have research articles and other professional literature saved in electronic files labelled ‘Research’ or something similar. Inside this, they will have sub-folders, and those might also have sub-folders. For research into this module’s subject matter, you might organise and store them in an electronic file labelled ‘Learning theories’ or ‘Behaviour development and change’, for example. Within these, you might have further files with names specifying the most relevant topic or client issue (e.g., parenting, social cognitive theory). A good tip is to think about how you might look for a particular article – are you more likely to search by the author, the issue, or the name of the theory, for example – to help you create a useful storage and labelling system?
As the number of resources grows, you may need to create further divisions to help you find the most relevant information quickly. For instance, if you have a lot of articles about behavioural change programs, you may further organise them by publication years, authors (for example, a group of authors may have published a follow-up on their previous study), or specifics of the programs (e.g., alcohol and other drug use). Doing regular ‘spring clean’ on your folders is also good practice. As well as freeing up space in your storage, it also helps eliminate any outdated or no longer required resources.
If you keep resources in hard copy, the same principles apply. Pick an accessible place to store books, journals, and other printed resources. You might use a filing cabinet that has folders with topic areas in alphabetical order or collect resources on the same topics in hard-cover folders arranged along with books on a bookshelf. Again, beware of the lack of organisation here – having a resource is pointless if you cannot find it! And as with electronic resources, a complete review of resources, weeding out those that are outdated or no longer relevant, and adding up-to-date materials will need to be done regularly.
Developing and maintaining a record of your resources and their topics can also be useful so you know what is in your library. This does not have to be a time-consuming process. If each time you add a resource, you open up a spreadsheet on Excel or a record-keeping app and add the name of the author and a few words about the subject, you will have a document that you can quickly search to see what information you have on a given issue or about a particular approach.
Learning Theories
This video summarises, critiques and analyses Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism.
Watch
Check your understanding of the content so far!
Throughout this module, you have explored key learning theories, ways they can be applied in counselling practice, critical evaluation of information, and how to start a professional library to support your continued professional development. These skills will not only help you develop your knowledge and skills in counselling but will help you make better use of the resources you have access to during this diploma and throughout your professional career. Remember, linking theory and practice, critical evaluation, and maintaining currency of knowledge are ongoing responsibilities. If you apply the skills you have learned in this module, you will be well on your way.
