Prepare Yourself to Work With Animals

Before you learn how to assist in the health care of animals, it is important to remember the basic principles of animal welfare and ethics.

Animal ethics

Ethical management and handling of animals are critical to the animal care industry. As an animal carer, your responsibility is to behave ethically when working with animals. You can think about ethical behaviours as ‘doing the right thing’ or ‘doing what is best’ for the animal.

You can be confident that you are upholding animal ethics if you follow the principles of animal welfare.

Principles of animal welfare

There are eight key principles of animal welfare.

1. Animals should not suffer from prolonged hunger
2. Animals should not suffer from prolonged thirst
3. Animals should have a comfortable environment
4. Animals should have enough space to be able to move around freely
5. Animals should be free of physical injuries
6. Animals should be free of disease
7. Animals should not suffer pain, fear or stress
8. Animals should be able to express normal, non-harmful, social behaviours.

In this module, your focus is on:

• providing the animal with appropriate care so that they:
  • are free of injury and disease
  • do not suffer unnecessary pain, fear or stress.
• conducting safe, low stress and humane handling and restraining techniques.

The following table summarises the principles relevant to this module and how you can uphold them in the workplace when you assist in the health care of animals.

Principle	The animal should have access to:	As an animal carer, you should:
Animals should be free of physical injuries	a safe environment that is unlikely to cause injury appropriate medical care safe, low stress and humane handling	provide housing that is unlikely to cause injury provide toys and enrichment items are unlikely to cause injury maintain, repair or replace enclosure parts and other items as needed provide appropriate medical care provide protection from unsafe interactions with public or untrained personnel handle the animal carefully and respectfully
Animals should be free of disease	clean and hygienic conditions appropriate medical care	ensure the spaces the animal occupies are clean and hygienic provide an appropriate amount of food that is suitable and nutritious provide appropriate preventative health treatments provide other health care as required
Animals should not suffer pain, fear or stress	appropriate management for its species safe, low stress and humane handling non-stressful environments and situations a quick and humane death (if the animal needs to be put down)	avoid unnecessary interaction with, handling or restraint of the animal provide protection from unsafe interactions with public or untrained personnel handle the animal carefully and respectfully restrain the animal safely and appropriately avoid performing unnecessary surgical procedures on the animal keep house prey animals away from the sight or smell of predators avoid stressful situations for the animal, such as inappropriate restraint

When you assist in the health care of an animal it is vital that you have a clear understanding of what you need to do. The health and well-being of that animal are your responsibility, so make sure you listen carefully when you are given instructions and ask questions to clarify and confirm when you are unsure. If you do not follow instructions appropriately, it may cause unnecessary pain and stress to the animal or result in injury for you or the person you are assisting.

Active listening skills

Active listening means giving someone your full concentration and to pay attention to more than just the words they are saying. In other words, an active listener takes in non-verbal cues, such as body language and tone of voice, as well as the verbal message.

Active listeners use verbal and non-verbal signs to indicate they are listening actively. In the article, ‘What Is Active Listening?’, Cuncic (2022) suggests the following seven key active listening techniques:

1. Be fully present. Don’t be distracted by other people or your surroundings. Put down your phone and concentrate solely on the speaker!
2. Pay attention to non-verbal cues. What does the tone of voice, the speed of speech and the posture of the speaker tell you about the importance or urgency of the information they are sharing?
3. Keep good eye contact. Maintain eye contact 50-70% of the conversation but only hold contact for four to five seconds at a time. Any more starts to feel a bit awkward.
4. Ask open-ended questions. Open-ended questions require more information than just a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. Open-ended questions show that you are paying attention and can help you get the specific information that you need.
5. Reflect what you hear. Summarise or paraphrase what the other person said and repeat it back to them. This gives them a chance to clarify or correct you if you have misinterpreted them.
6. Be patient. Don’t interrupt, finish the other person’s sentences or change subjects abruptly.
7. Withhold judgement. Remain neutral and avoid judgemental responses or reactions.

The first five techniques are particularly important when receiving instructions, asking questions or confirming information with your supervisor.

Open-ended and closed-ended questions

Asking questions is a fantastic way to find out information. Questions can be classified into two broad types:

1. Closed-ended questions
2. Open-ended questions.

Closed-ended questions can only be answered by a very narrow range of possible answers. Typical closed-ended questions can be answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or a small piece of specific information.

Examples of closed-ended questions include:

• Which animal is next for treatment?
• Is this the correct piece of equipment to use?
• What health care task is needed for this animal?

Close-ended questions are also great for clarifying information or confirming that you have correctly understood an instruction.

Open-ended questions typically begin with words or phrases such as ‘what’, ‘why’, ‘describe’, ‘how’ and ‘tell me’. They require detailed responses and are a great way of finding out new information.

Some examples of open-ended questions include:

• How can I tell the difference between ticks and fleas?
• Why is it better to use a scrub top than an apron in this situation?
• What is the best way to restrain a fractious cat?

Funnelling

A good technique to use when seeking instructions or advice from your supervisor is to use ‘funnelling’ to question, clarify and confirm.

Start with broad, open-ended questions to gain the information you need. Then, use close-ended questions to learn specific details, clarify your understanding and confirm the instructions you have received.

Confirm the animal and the health care task

Before proceeding with any procedure or treatment for an animal, there are three key steps you should follow:

1. Identify the animal to be treated
2. Identify the health care task for and welfare needs of that animal
3. Confirm the animal and health care requirements with your supervisor.

Identify the animal to be treated

To ensure they receive the appropriate treatment, you need to identify the animal before you proceed with any procedure or treatment. Methods of identifying animals include:

• Confirming the identification of the animal with their owner
• Confirming breed, sex, colour and markings with computer records or the cage card
• Checking the microchip number against computer records or the cage card
• Checking ear tags, tattoos and other markings against the cage card, history or admission forms
• Checking for a response when their name is called.

You will likely need to use a combination of methods to confidently identify the animal.

Identify the health care task and welfare needs

Once you have identified the animal, determine the health task required as well as any welfare needs specific to that animal. The patient’s file, cage card or booking details should contain information about any treatments or medication required by the animal.

Being considerate of an animal’s welfare needs will likely reduce their stress and make them easier to handle. The patient’s history in their file should also provide details about any known welfare needs for the animal. Significant welfare needs may also be noted on the cage card.

Common welfare needs you should consider include:

• Chronic illnesses or injuries that may affect the way the animal needs to be handled. For example, an arthritic patient may have very tender joints.
• Known stressors to avoid. For example, an animal may be afraid of males, so should be handled by female staff if possible.
• The tendency for aggression in particular situations. For example, a cat that lashes out when confined in a cage but is content to be carried in your arms. “Less is more” may be noted on the cage card in this instance.
• Responsiveness to treats and distractions. For example, an animal that only requires minimal restraint if provided with food. “I like treats” may be noted on the cage card for this animal.

Confirm with your supervisor

Talk to your supervisor or other appropriate staff members to find out any information you can’t locate on your own and use your active listening skills to clarify and confirm your understanding. If you have identified the animal, its welfare needs and the health care task yourself, double-check the information with your supervisor.

Confirmation ensures that the correct animal receives the correct treatment, upholds the animal welfare principle that animals should not suffer pain, fear or stress because of unnecessary handling or medical procedures, and reduces risks to the safety of staff and the general public.

Now is also the time to confirm that you know what equipment, medications and personal protective equipment (PPE) are needed to complete the task safely and appropriately. Check with your supervisor so that you are fully prepared for the task at hand.

Common disease and treatment abbreviations

When assisting in the health care of animals, it is important to recognise and understand the common industry standard abbreviations used.

The following tables list some of the most common abbreviations used related to health care in animals. You will find a more comprehensive list of abbreviations and key animal care terminology in the introductory module for this course.

Disease and injury abbreviations	Description	Disease and injury abbreviations	Description
BIV	Bovine immuno-deficiency-like virus	fLUTD	Feline lower urinary tract disease
BHV	Bovine herpesvirus	FRV	Feline rhinotracheitis virus
BLV	Bovine leukemia virus	fx	Fracture (break in bone or tooth), also written as # for a broken tooth
BRD	Bovine respiratory disease	GDV	Gastric dilatation-volvulus
Canine Cough	Colloquialism for a group of contagious bacterial and/or viral diseases that cause a cough in dogs. Also referred to as Kennel Cough by some vaccination brands.	GI	Gastrointestinal (tract)
CBA	Cat fight bite	HBC	Hit by car
CDV	Canine distemper virus	HW	Heartworm
CFA	Cat fight abscess	IBD	Inflammatory bowel disease
CPV	Canine parvovirus	IBD	Inclusion Body Disease (for snakes)
DJD	Degenerative joint disease	ICH	Infectious canine hepatitis
EHV	Equine herpesvirus	IVDD	Intervertebral disc disease
EIAV	Equine infectious anemia virus (a lentivirus)	KBH	Kicked by horse
FAD	Flea allergy dermatitis	NAD	No abnormalities detected
FCV	Feline calicivirus	OA	Osteoarthritis, degenerative joint disease
FeLV	Feline leukemia virus	PBFD	Psittacine beak and feather disease
FIA	Feline infectious anemia	PRA	Progressive retinal atrophy
FIP	Feline infectious peritonitis	RCD	Rabbit calicivirus disease (rabbit haemorrhagic disease)
FIV	Feline immunodeficiency virus	UTI	Urinary tract infection

Common procedure, vaccine and treatment abbreviations	Description	Common procedure, vaccine and treatment abbreviations	Description
Abs	Antibiotics – drugs used to treat bacterial infections	BB	Bordatella bronchiseptica (vaccine)
C3	Canine 3 vaccine - Distemper, Hepatitis and Parvovirus	C4	Canine 4 vaccine - Distemper, Hepatitis, Parvovirus and Parainfluenza
C5	Canine 5 vaccine - Distemper, Hepatitis, Parvovirus, Parainfluenza and Bordatella bronchiseptica	C7	Canine 7 vaccine - Leptospirosis, Distemper, Hepatitis, Parvovirus, Parainfluenza and Bordatella bronchiseptica
EAGs	Express anal glands or empty anal glands	F3	Feline 3 vaccine - Enteritis, Rhinotracheitis, Calicivirus, Chlamydia
F4	Feline 4 vaccine - Enteritis, Rhinotracheitis, Calicivirus or Feline 4 vaccine - Enteritis, Rhinotracheitis, Calicivirus, Feline Leukemia	F5	Feline 5 vaccine - Feline Panleucopenia Virus, Feline Herpesvirus, Feline Calicivirus, Chlamydophila psittaci and Feline Leukaemia Virus
NSAID	Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, these are drugs commonly used for pain management. Should never be used in conjunction with Steroids. In most cases must be given with food.	Spey	Ovariohysterectomy – Surgical removal of ovaries, fallopian tube, uterine horn, and body. Desexing of female.
r/s, s/r, s/o	Remove sutures e.g., r/s 10 days

In the animal health care industry, there are several common health maintenance issues and preventative treatments that are specific to each class of animal.

The six classes of animal are:

1. Invertebrates such as insects, snails and shrimp.
2. Fish such as angel fish, lionfish and guppies.
3. Amphibians such as frogs, toads and salamanders.
4. Reptiles such as snakes, lizards and turtles.
5. Birds such as finches, parrots and chickens.
6. Mammals such as cats, guinea pigs and cows.

All health care issues can be classified as either infectious or non-infectious. Many health concerns, whether infectious or non-infectious, have preventative treatments.

Infectious disease

All animals are susceptible to infectious disease. Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, protists, parasites, and viruses. Infectious disease can spread quickly between different individuals and sometimes even between different species. Diseases that can spread from animals to humans are called zoonotic diseases.

The following table lists some common infectious diseases for each of the classes of animal you will likely work with.

Animal Class	Common Infectious Diseases
Fish	Cotton mouth (bacterial infection) Dropsy Fin/tail rot (Petbarn 2020)
Amphibians	Bacterial diseases including: Chlamydiosis Mycobacteriosis Red-leg syndrome Fungal infections such as: Chytridiomycosis Chromoblastomycosis (Whitaker & Yaw 2022)
Reptiles	Adenoviruses (viral infection) Infectious Stomatitis (bacterial infection) Entamoeba invadens (protozoan infection) Cryptosporidiosis (protozoan infection) (Divers 2020)
Birds	Bacterial diseases including: Psittacosis Avian Mycobacteriosis (Hoppes 2021a) Viral infections such as: Avian Polyomavirus Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease Avian Influenza (Hoppes 2021b)
Mammals	Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) (viral infection in cats) Canine distemper (viral infection in dogs) Equine Encephalomyelitis (viral infection in horses) Pasteurellosis (bacterial infection in rabbits)

Modes of transmission

A defining characteristic of an infectious disease is that it can be spread from one individual to another. The ways in which the pathogens are spread are called modes of transmission.

There are two broad modes of transmission, with more specific methods within each category:

1. Direct transmission occurs by coming in contact with an infected animal or its blood and other bodily fluids, such as through an infected animal biting or scratching another, touching open wounds or handling faeces.
2. Indirect transmission occurs by the infected animal contaminating an object or other animal, which then passes the pathogen to a new host. For example, using non-sterilised surgical equipment and passing a bacterial infection to a new patient.
   1. Droplet transmission is very common and occurs when pathogens pass out of the infected individual in tiny droplets of water when they cough, sneeze or vocalise.
   2. Airborne transmission occurs when the pathogens survive after the droplets have dried up. The pathogens remain suspended in the air and are inhaled by another individual. Airborne transmission is relatively rare, and typically only occurs with the tiniest of pathogens – viruses.
   3. Vector-borne transmission occurs when a different species of animal (the vector) carries the pathogen from the infected individual to a non-infected individual. For example, when a mosquito (the vector in this example) bites an infected animal, it can pass the disease to the next animal it bites. Many vectors are parasitic invertebrates (ATrain Education n.d.).

Hand hygiene and PPE is used to disrupt the transmission of disease. So, it is very important to ensure you follow correct hand hygiene and use PPE appropriately at all times.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics (Abs) are medications that help destroy pathogenic bacteria. They are not effective against diseases caused by viruses, fungi, protists or parasites. Broad-spectrum antibiotics target multiple types of bacteria at once, while narrow-spectrum antibiotics are only effective against a specific type or small groups of closely related bacteria.

You may be required to administer antibiotics to a patient. Simply follow the instructions from your supervisor or vet.

Parasites

A parasite is an organism that depends on another organism – the host – for its survival. Parasites can be classified into the following two main groups:

1. Internal parasites (endoparasites)
2. External parasites (ectoparasites).

Parasites are considered infectious because they are easily spread between different animals.

Internal parasites

Internal parasites live inside the body of the host. The most common type of internal parasite in animals are types of worms.

Select each of the following headings to learn about some common internal parasites.

The following video, “Heartworm Life Cycle for Pet Owners” (3:16 min) describes the life cycle of heartworm and outlines some common symptoms displayed by infected animals.

External parasites

External parasites live on the surface of the host. Most external parasites are invertebrates. Preventative treatment for external parasites typically involves spreading a liquid product on the animal’s skin. In small animals, such as cats and dogs, a topic skin preparation (a drop of medication placed directly on the skin, usually on the back of the neck) is common. In larger animals, such as cattle, a backline application (a line of medication drawn along the length of the spine of the animal) is typical.

The following video (1:24 min) demonstrates how to apply a ‘spot on’ topical skin preparation on a cat.

Select each of the following headings to learn about some common external parasites.

Vectors

A vector is any animal that spreads an infectious disease from one animal to another. The vector is typically not affected by the disease. Many vectors of animal disease are invertebrates. Many external parasites also act as vectors. For example, Bartonella henselae and Rickettsia felis, bacterial species that cause cat-scratch disease and cat flea typhus respectively, can be spread by fleas (Vet Practice 2021).

Non-infectious health problems

Non-infectious diseases cannot spread from one individual to another. Non-infectious health problems include:

• Allergies, such as contact allergies, allergies to food and medication, and flea allergy dermatitis (FAD)
• Genetic diseases, such as hip dysplasia in dogs
• Cancers, including neoplasms (abnormal tissue growth)
• Malnutrition due to jaw injury, anorexia or poor diet
• Chemical poisoning, such as ammonia poisoning in fish or lead toxicity in birds
• Autoimmune diseases, such as diabetes
• Musculoskeletal conditions or injuries.

Treatment of non-infectious health problems depends on the specific health concern and the animal involved. Some non-infectious diseases, such as diabetes, require ongoing treatment to manage the symptoms and prevent deterioration.

Preventative and maintenance health care

Several common health care treatments are routinely performed on animals to prevent health problems. These preventative treatments are typically less invasive than treating the health problem that may arise without preventative measures. Preventative health care can help prevent both infectious diseases and non-infectious health problems.

Common preventative and maintenance health care includes:

• Vaccination
• Internal parasite control, such as heartworm and intestinal worms
• External parasite control, such as mites, ticks, fleas and lice
• Nail/claw trimming and hoof care
• Dental/oral care
• Bathing, clipping and grooming
• Eye and ear cleaning
• Expressing of anal glands (EAGs)
• Providing medication for ongoing or chronic conditions.

Vaccination

Vaccination is the most common way to prevent infectious diseases. Most domestic animals have a recommended vaccination schedule to follow throughout their life. The specific vaccines and when they should be administered will depend on the species of animal, the individual’s life stage and risk of particular diseases.

It is generally not recommended to give vaccines during pregnancy, unless specifically indicated in the SDS. In particular, modified live virus vaccines should be avoided. Ideally, the female should be fully vaccinated with their core vaccines before breeding. If the standard vaccination schedule has been followed, the mother’s immunity will be able to provide adequate immunity for the offspring via colostrum in the milk (Day et al. 2016).

Access and read the WSAVA Vaccination Guidelines to learn more about evidence-based veterinary medicine and how it relates to vaccinations for cats and dogs, the different types of vaccines and vaccination guidelines for cats and dogs.

Select each of the following headings to see three basic examples of vaccination schedules for different animals.

Health care for different life stages

As an animal progresses through its life stages, the specific preventative and maintenance health care requirements and schedules are likely to change. For example, dogs “should be wormed every two weeks until twelve weeks of age, then monthly until six months of age. After six months all dogs need to be wormed every three months for effective protection” (Vetwest Animal Hospitals n.d.a).

Some non-infectious health issues, such as arthritis and heart disease, are more likely in senior animals than in other life stages and so only require preventative treatment as the animal approaches that life stage.

While most vaccinations and parasite treatments are safe for pregnant and lactating animals, some medications, such as anti-inflammatories and some antibiotics and antifungals, may be harmful to either the mother or the young.

Cats and dogs are generally accepted to have the following four life stages:

1. Kitten or puppy – the first 1-2 years of life is the significant growth period for these animals.
2. Adult – the years when the animal is fully grown but before it begins to experience the effects of old age.
3. Senior – the start of this stage depends on life expectancy. In general, the senior phase of life starts around:
   • 7-9 years old in cats
   • 12 years old in small dog breeds
   • 10 years old in medium dogs
   • 8 years old in large dogs.
4. Pregnant or nursing – in the last trimester of pregnancy and in the lactation period.

Common safety and animal welfare risks

Before you even approach an animal, it is critical that you have considered the safety and welfare of the animal as well as the potential safety risk to you and any other staff. In an animal health care facility, common safety and animal welfare risks relate to:

1. Animal handling
2. Biological hazards, including zoonotic diseases and body fluids
3. Hazardous substances
4. Radiation
5. Sharps
6. Manual handling and work postures
7. Slips, trips and falls
8. Noise.

Animal handling

The main risk of working in an animal health care clinic is handling animals because animals are unpredictable, especially when they may be injured or sick.

To minimise the risk to yourself and to uphold the animal welfare principle that animals should not suffer pain, fear or stress, only handle animals when absolutely necessary. When you do handle an animal, make sure to use the appropriate humane and low stress techniques for that animal.

Avoiding incidents with animals can be managed by:

• Assessing the animal’s state before attempting to handle it
• Using appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE)
• Using appropriate handling equipment
• Using appropriate handling techniques
• Experience.

We will discuss how to assess the animal’s temperament and behaviour as well as appropriate handling and restraining techniques later in this module.

Once you have been properly trained and gained more experience, you will be more capable of approaching an animal confidently and calmly.

Biological hazards

Recall that zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. It is important that all animal carers are aware of these diseases and can guard against them. Common zoonotic diseases in Australia include:

• Leptospirosis – a bacterial infection (Leptospira spp.) spread by contact with animal urine, such as infected dogs, pigs, cattle and rodents (NSW Health 2021)
• Psittacosis – a bacterial infection (Chlamydophila psittaci) transmitted by birds (NSW Health 2018)
• Q fever – a bacterial infection (Coxiella burnetiid) most commonly transmitted by cattle, sheep and goats (NSW Health 2019). People are at the highest risk of contracting Q fever when assisting with a caesarean birth and so are commonly vaccinated before they are allowed to assist.

Protecting yourself from zoonosis

While different zoonic diseases can be transmitted in different ways, the following are common ways to minimise the risk of transmission of most forms of zoonosis:

• Wash your hands and arms thoroughly after handling animals, even if you wear gloves
• Wear gloves, goggles and an apron or other protective clothes
• Cover any open cuts or scratches with waterproof dressings
• Wear a properly fitted P2/N95 face mask
• Wash surfaces and equipment thoroughly after use, especially if in contact with blood, urine, faeces or other bodily fluids (NSW Health 2018, 2019 and 2021).

Vaccinations are also available for many zoonotic diseases and are recommended for people working in high-risk roles or workplaces. However, even if you are vaccinated, you should still follow appropriate procedures to avoid contact with zoonotic pathogens.

Hazardous substances

Many hazardous substances can be found in an animal health care workplace, including:

• Animal medications
• Anaesthetics
• Sterilising chemicals
• Cleaning products
• Solvents.

Some of the main risks that can come from accidental exposure to hazardous substances can include:

• Poisoning
• Chemical burns
• Eye irritations
• Respiratory problems
• Skin conditions.

You must ensure hazardous substances are used according to the manufacturer's or supplier's written instructions, in the form of a safety data sheet (SDS), and that safe working procedures are followed at your workplace. Ensure you know where to access the SDSs for the substance you are working with.

Hazardous substances must be stored securely and labelled clearly. A number of the substances used in animal care practice must be kept in locked storage and accessed only by animal care practitioners. They may include medications and dangerous drugs.

Your clinic will have policies and procedures related to the storage and handling of dangerous chemicals and drugs, and you should ensure you know what these are and the level of responsibility you have for handling them.

Radiation

The use of x-ray equipment in animal care clinics is common and understanding the associated risks when working with radiation and how to reduce these risks is very important. Only qualified persons (holding a radiation license) are allowed to physically press the exposure button to take the x-ray. However, animal attendants and nurses will be involved in the positioning, restraining and monitoring of animals during the procedure.

Ideally, chemical restraint (anaesthetic or sedation) should be used along with manual restraints such as ties, tapes and other positioning aids. Using both types of restraint means that all staff can leave the room during the imaging and reduce their exposure to radiation.

When sedation or anaesthetic is detrimental to the animal’s health, physical manual restraint by a staff member may be required. Each staff member must be protected with appropriate shielding devices (lead-lined gloves and apron) and positioned so that no part of their body is in the path of the x-ray beam.

Radiation exposure must be monitored for any workers involved in using x-rays. For example, warning signs must be displayed, and Personal Radiation Monitoring devices must be worn at all times when in the clinic. When using the x-ray machines, you must follow the state and territory legislative requirements as well as the Australian Animal Care Association Guidelines.

Sharps

There are many types of sharp instruments in an animal health care clinic including syringes and scalpels.

Sharps must always be disposed of in a clearly labelled and appropriate sharps disposal container. These containers should be replaced once they have reached a certain level of capacity. This is to prevent people from trying to force used sharps into an almost full container which can lead to injuries. Sharps should be placed in the sharps disposal containers using supplied handling tools, not with hands.

Manual handling

Manual handling is a part of almost every job. However, in an animal health care workplace, manual handling may be quite common. Manual handling could include:

• Lifting animals
• Replenishing stocks of food
• Stacking boxes.

At times, your work tasks may involve bending, stretching, twisting, or working with heavy, large or awkward loads. Make sure you lift objects or animals correctly, according to workplace procedures, and seek assistance when the load is too heavy, large or awkward for one person to lift by themselves.

Slips, trips and falls

Slips, trips and falls are common in most workplaces. To minimise the risk of injury, ensure that you wear closed-in shoes with appropriate tread for good grip. Preparing and maintaining the area is also important. Spills are common, so ensure all surfaces are clean and dry. Your workplace should have procedures for reporting and cleaning up spills (Philpott n.d.).

Noise

Working with animals can be very noisy, especially when working with large numbers of barking dogs. Where possible, ear protection, such as ear plugs or earmuffs, is recommended. Try to minimise your time spent in situations where the noise is very loud.

Where to find WHS information

You will be able to access WHS information in several ways in the clinic. These sources may include:

• Clinic policies and procedures
• Intranet
• Posters
• Induction package
• Veterinarian
• Practice Manager.

If you cannot find the information you need, then please check with your supervisor for further information.

Reporting hazards

It is important that you familiarise yourself with your workplace policies and procedures regarding raising WHS concerns. Each workplace is different, so it is important to be familiar with the processes that must be followed at your workplace.

When you need to raise issues, you should follow the workplace policies and procedures for reporting issues and concerns. However, if a matter is not resolved, then you will have the option of submitting a complaint to your State or Territory WorkCover authority.

Risks to the animal

There are also risks to the animal’s welfare to consider as well. Although providing health care to an animal is necessary for its well-being, being handled can be very stressful for an animal. This is particularly true for animals that are already stressed due to poor health or injury.

In extreme cases, the stress of being handled may cause the animal to go into shock – where the blood flow around the body suddenly reduces. The reduced blood flow can cause further problems for the animal as tissues and organs do not receive the oxygen and nutrients they require from the blood.

Improper handling may also cause the animal an injury or, in the worst-case scenario, even death.

To minimise the risk of injury or shock, it is best to minimise your time handling the animal and to ensure you follow the proper, best-practice handling techniques.

Hand hygiene and handwashing

Hand hygiene is critical in animal health care. Hand hygiene is the general term applied to washing your hands.

Phillips (n.d.) states that you should wash your hands:

• “Immediately when you arrive at work.
• At all 5 points of contact with patients (5 Moments for Hand Hygiene).
• After touching any instrument or object that might be contaminated with blood or other bodily fluids, or after touching mucous membranes.
• After you handle blood, urine or other specimens [such as faeces].
• After removal of gloves.
• Before and after using the toilet.
• Before eating or drinking.
• Before leaving work.”

The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies five moments for hand hygiene, which also apply to animal health care.

The five moments are:

1. Before touching a patient - to protect the patient from pathogens you may be carrying on your hands.
2. Before clean/aseptic procedures - to help protect the patient from pathogens entering their body.
3. After exposure to or risk of exposure to body fluid - to protect yourself from any pathogens from the patient and to prevent spreading pathogens.
4. After touching a patient - to protect yourself from any pathogens from the patient and prevent spreading pathogens.
5. After touching the patient’s surroundings - to protect yourself from any pathogens from the patient and to prevent spreading pathogens.

How you wash your hands will depend on the task you are about to perform. The four types of hand hygiene are:

1. Routine handwash
2. Antiseptic hand rub
3. Antiseptic handwash
4. Surgical antisepsis (Martin 2021).

Routine handwash

Routine handwashing is when you wash your hands with non-antimicrobial soap and water. Routine handwashing is appropriate for animal health care tasks with minimal risk of exposure to pathogens or contaminants.

You should use a routine hand wash before and after low-risk tasks such as:

• securing, transporting and restraining healthy animals
• completing reception duties
• before and after preparing food for animals
• grooming an animal
• handling chemicals or medications
• cleaning low-risk areas, such as product shelving and windows
• eating your own food.

When conducting a routine handwash you should:

• Use soap and clean, running water
• Remove rings and jewellery or move them to wash underneath
• Rub your hands for at least 30 seconds to remove any particles and microorganisms
• Where possible, use disposable paper towel to dry your hands and use the towel to turn off the tap
• Ideally, use liquid soap and wash the dispenser before refilling (Martin 2021).

Examine the following video, ‘Hand Hygiene in Veterinary Practice presented by the Bella Moss Foundation’ (2:49 min), to learn more about the 5 Moments for Hand Hygiene and the correct way to wash your hands in a routine handwash.

Antiseptic hand rub

Antiseptic hand rub cleans your hands with an alcohol-based gel instead of soap. Unlike soap, you do not rinse the hand rub off with water. Instead, any excess gel evaporates. Antiseptic hand rub is often used when clean running water is not available.

It is important to remember that antiseptic hand rub won’t clean your hands. It sanitises them. So, if your hands are dirty or you have come into contact with a substance, such as a faecal sample, you will need to wipe your hands clean before applying the hand rub.

When using antiseptic hand rub:

1. Remove all jewellery.
2. Apply the manufacturer’s recommended quantity into a cupped hand.
3. Rub the palms of your hands together.
4. Rub your right palm over the back of your left hand with fingers interlaced and vice versa.
5. Rub between your fingers by interlacing your fingers, palm to palm.
6. Rub the backs of your fingers by interlacing your finger, right palm to the back of your left hand and vice versa.
7. Rub your right thumb by clasping it in your left hand and rotating, and vice versa.
8. Rub your hands by rotating and rubbing backwards and forwards with clasped fingers of the right hand in the left palm and vice versa.
9. Continue to rub your hands together until they are dry. Do not rub or wash off excess product (Martin 2021).

Antiseptic handwash

The third hand hygiene routine is known as an antiseptic handwash or the clean technique. This type of hand hygiene uses antimicrobial soap and clean water and is used to remove or destroy any microorganisms that may be present on your hands.

You should perform an antiseptic handwash in situations such as:

• before clipping fur and preparing skin for surgery
• after exposure to an animal with a confirmed or suspected zoonotic or contagious disease
• after exposure to blood or other bodily fluids
• after cleaning litter trays or disposing of faeces
• after handling pathology samples.

When using the antiseptic handwash routine, remove any jewellery then:

1. Wet your hands and wrists. Position your hands lower than your elbows to allow water to flow towards the fingertips.
2. Cover all areas of hands with soap.
3. With firm rubbing and circular motions, wash the palms and backs of your hands, every finger individually, your wrists and forearms. Continuously rub your hands, wrists and forearms for at least 30 seconds.
4. Rinse thoroughly with clean water by letting the water flow from your forearms towards your fingertips.
5. Using paper towel, pat your hands dry, beginning with your fingers and moving upward towards your forearms. Dispose of the used paper towel immediately.
6. If you need to turn the water off with your hands, use a piece of clean paper towel (Martin 2021).

Surgical antisepsis

Surgical antisepsis, or the sterile technique, is the fourth hand hygiene routine. As with antiseptic handwashing, surgical antisepsis uses antimicrobial soap. However, surgical antisepsis uses sterile water instead of tap water, involves a scrubbing brush, takes around 5 minutes to perform instead of 30 seconds and you hold your hands higher than your elbows rather than the other way around.

As the name suggests, surgical antisepsis is typically used before performing surgery.

The key steps of the surgical antisepsis handwashing technique are:

1. Remove all jewellery.
2. Wet your hands with sterile water at or close to body temperature (approximately 37°C).
3. Wash your hands using antimicrobial soap and/or povidone-iodine.
4. Clean under your fingernails with a nail file.
5. Hold your hands higher than your elbows at all times to prevent bacteria-laden soap and water from dripping down and contaminating your hands.
6. Scrub each side of each finger, between your fingers, the fronts and backs of both hands, both wrists and both forearms for at least 4 minutes.
7. Rinse your hands, wrists and forearms by passing them through running water, making sure the water only flows in one direction - from fingertips to elbow.
8. Enter the operating room holding your wet hands above your elbows.
9. Dry your hands and arms using a sterile towel and observe the aseptic technique (Martin 2021).

Study the following video, “Anatomical Surgical Hand Scrub” (5:09 min), which demonstrates excellent antisepsis handwashing technique.

PPE appropriate for animal health care

PPE is the equipment used or worn by a person to minimise the risk of health and safety hazards. PPE appropriate in the health care of animals includes items such as:

• protective footwear
• face masks
• goggles or other eye protection
• gloves
• aprons, scrub tops or gowns.

Your workplace will have procedures related to the types of equipment you need to wear in order to stay safe at work and when to wear it. Always ensure you wear the equipment correctly and ensure it is correctly fitted to provide the maximum level of safety for the task.

Some workplaces categorise health care situations into tiers as a basic guideline of the PPE required for the task. The following table outlines the typical PPE recommended by WorkSafeQueensland (2018) for each of the three tiers.

Tier	Descrition of Tier	Recommended PPE
Tier 1	Healthy animal – non-invasive procedure	Gloves Face/eye protection Gown/overalls
Tier 2	Healthy animal – invasive procedure or expecting contact with blood and body fluids	Gloves Face/eye protection Gown/overalls Disposable P2 respirator
Tier 3	Animal known to be sick	Gloves Face/eye protection Gown/overalls Disposable P2 respirator Shoe covers/rubber boots

Appropriate PPE for assisting in the heath care of horses

The specific PPE you require will depend on the health care task you are performing. For example, the PPE appropriate for the person restraining an animal will differ from that required for the person performing an anal gland expression.

WorkSafe Queensland (2018) outlines the following items of PPE to wear when assisting in the health care of horses in the article ‘Selecting and using PPE in veterinary practice’.

PPE item	Purpose	When to use
Disposable gloves	Prevent hand contamination Prevent spread of infection between animals and properties	Wear when: contact with blood, bodily fluids, or mucous membranes is possible handling contaminated equipment and waste infectious diseases have been confirmed or are likely, such as Hendra virus.
Safety goggles/glasses, surgical mask or face shield	Prevent face contamination Prevent mucous membrane contamination, including respiratory system	Wear when: “contamination of the eyes, nose, mouth and face is likely” infectious diseases have been confirmed or are likely, such as Hendra virus.
Respiratory protective equipment (RPE)	Prevent inhaling infectious particles	Wear when: exposure to airborne infectious particles is likely infectious diseases have been confirmed or are likely, such as Hendra virus.
Reusable overall/coveralls or disposable gowns and overalls	Prevent contamination of clothing and skin Prevent spread of infection between animals and properties	Wear when: contact with blood or bodily fluids is likely infectious diseases have been confirmed or are likely, such as Hendra virus.
Rubber boots, shoe/boot covers or steel-capped boots	Prevent contamination of regular shoes Prevent spread of infection between animals and properties	Wear when: contact with blood or bodily fluids is likely infectious diseases have been confirmed or are likely, such as Hendra virus footwear needs to be removed or decontaminated to prevent transfer of contaminated soil.

Review the following video, ‘PPE for equine veterinarians’ (5:23 min), for a more detailed explanation of the PPE required and how vets think about PPE when they perform health care tasks on horses.

It is critical for you to read and understand the safety guidelines of any product or equipment you use for specific instructions around PPE and hand hygiene. If you are unsure what is required, check with your supervisor.

Prepare health care work area, equipment and supplies

Preparing the work area and setting up all equipment before you start a procedure or exam is very important. It is unprofessional and inefficient, and the animal can become distressed if you are constantly going in and out of the work area gathering equipment.

The three main steps in preparing the health care work area are:

1. Ensure the area is clean and ready for use.
2. Gather all equipment, utensils, products, restraint materials and PPE appropriate for the task.
   1. Check all equipment to ensure it is in good working order.
   2. Check the expiry dates and packaging of supplies for signs of damage or contamination.
3. Prepare the area:
   1. Ensure all utensils and equipment are laid out within easy reach.
   2. Ensure the surface to be used is ready for the animal. For example, consider how messy the procedure will be. If the surface is slippery or cold, you may need to place a towel, blanket or non-slip covering on the surface.

Select each of the following headings to see the equipment and supplies typically required for each listed procedure, some of which you may need to administer as part of your work placement and assessment.

You must follow instructions given by your supervisor on how to set up the equipment ready for use or read the instruction manuals provided. Failure to do so can result in equipment malfunction, equipment damage or breakage, or injury to you, the animal and other staff.