Assess the situation and plan your response

Before you learn how to provide basic animal first aid, it is important to remember the basic principles of animal welfare and ethics.

Animal ethics

Ethical management and handling of animals are critical to the animal care industry. As an animal carer, it is your responsibility to behave ethically when working with animals. You can think about ethical behaviours as ‘doing the right thing’ or ‘doing what is best’ for the animal.

You can be confident that you are upholding animal ethics if you follow the principles of animal welfare.

Principles of animal welfare

There are eight key principles of animal welfare.

1. Animals should not suffer from prolonged hunger
2. Animals should not suffer from prolonged thirst
3. Animals should have a comfortable environment
4. Animals should have enough space to be able to move around freely
5. Animals should be free of physical injuries
6. Animals should be free of disease
7. Animals should not suffer pain, fear or stress
8. Animals should be able to express normal, non-harmful, social behaviours

Upholding animal ethics when providing essential first aid to animals

In this module, your focus is on providing essential first aid to animals. You will learn how to provide an initial response where first aid is required. You will learn how to:

1. assess circumstances and plan your response
2. approach, secure and protect animals
3. provide first aid assistance to animals.

The following table summarises the principles relevant to this module and how you can uphold them in the workplace when you provide basic animal first aid.

Principle	The animal should have access to:	As an animal first aider, you should:
Animals should be free of physical injuries	appropriate medical care safe, low stress and humane handling	use humane handling techniques and restraints when capturing, handling, and transporting provide appropriate medical care assess the situation and control any hazards that pose a risk to the animal(s)
Animals should not suffer pain, fear or stress	appropriate management for its species safe, low stress and humane handling non-stressful environments and situations quick and humane death (if the animal needs to be euthanised)	avoid unnecessary interaction with, or unnecessary handling or restraint of the animal handle the animal carefully and respectfully restrain the animal safely and appropriately avoid stressful situations for the animal, such as inappropriate restraint assess the situation and control any hazards that pose a risk to the animal(s)

Recognising an emergency situation

In this topic, we will be studying emergencies in the context of providing animal first aid. We can define an emergency as a situation where there is an immediate risk to the health and life of an animal. An emergency situation requires immediate intervention to prevent deterioration.

A medical emergency is a situation that requires immediate veterinary attention or first aid:

• to stabilise the animal (prevent death)
• protect any injuries from further harm
• increase the likelihood of survival until veterinary intervention.

Emergencies often occur without warning, such as a cat attacking a rabbit. Others, although just as serious, are not as easy to see. “For example, a German Shepherd appears restless after a large meal and tries to vomit; unknown to the owner, this is the beginning of gastric dilatation and volvulus (GDV), one of the most serious medical emergencies in dogs” (Williams, Llera & Ward n.d.).

You will need to know how to recognise emergencies when:

• taking phone calls
• a client arrives with an ill or injured animal
• communicating with staff
• in the field (places that are not in an animal medical clinic).

In the case of emergencies, an animal care workplace should establish procedures and practices to facilitate the speedy assessment of animal incidents. They should be set up to give an immediate first aid response or advise owners on how to carry out their own effective first aid. Make sure you know which veterinary clinic, wildlife rescue centre or other entity you will contact for support, and which facilities are available for emergencies during normal work hours and after hours.

Classifying emergencies

It is essential when working in the animal care industry that you can recognise when a situation is an emergency because it will help determine your actions when providing first aid. Situations requiring first aid can be classified into one of four types:

1. Life-threatening emergencies require immediate attention. The animal is at risk of dying or deteriorating significantly if not seen by a veterinarian within 1-60 minutes.
2. Intermediate emergencies require immediate attention but are not imminently life-threatening. The animal needs to be seen by a veterinarian in the next 30 minutes to 2 hours.
3. Minor emergencies do not require immediate veterinary attention. However, the animal needs to be seen that day, preferably sooner rather than later.
4. Non-emergencies can usually be treated with just basic first aid and do not require a veterinarian’s attention unless the animal’s condition significantly deteriorates.

All other medical situations are considered routine care. Routine care is planned and therefore does not require first aid. The following table lists some examples of situations and symptoms that could be classified as the four different levels of emergency as well as some common routine care procedures.

Classification	Situation and symptoms
Life-threatening emergency	Snake bite * Gastric dilation (volvulus) Swollen or distended abdomen, with or without vomiting Difficulty breathing Raspy breathing sounds Blue tongue Heat stress Major blood loss and bleeding that will not stop Penetrating wounds Male cat not passing urine Recently suffered cardiac arrest or respiratory arrest Anaphylactic reaction Hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar) Dystocia - very slow or difficult labour, for example labouring for 2+ hours with no progression or a puppy, kitten, etc., is visibly stuck Cane toad toxicity Trauma from being hit by a car Trauma due to a fall from a height or blunt force, even if the animal is not showing any ill effects Collapse or inability to stand or walk Burns – fire, hot water, chemicals Pyretherin toxicity in cats (e.g., application of topical tick prevention for dogs) Loss of consciousness
Immediate attention – intermediate emergency	Tick paralysis * Birthing difficulties * Male cat passing urine with difficulty Toxin ingestion, for example, mouse, rat and snail baits, prescriptions, over-the-counter or illegal drugs and household cleaners Open fracture Trouble walking; prolapsed eyeball Closed fracture; bowel blockage Chocolate ingestion Colic Seizure or convulsion Loss of balance
Minor emergency	Small cuts Eye injuries Multiple vomits with pain and/or blood Diarrhea with pain and/or blood Constipation Head tilt
Non-emergency	Catfight abscess Torn toenail Nicked toe while trimming claws Skin/coat issues/hair los One-off vomit One-off loose motion Anorexia (refusal to eat) Non-weight bearing, holding up limb; bird striking a window
Routine care	Vaccination Preventative health Dental health check Senior health check Arthritis

First aid management principles and rules

Life-threatening, intermediate and minor emergencies all require first aid. The aims of first aid are to stop the animal from deteriorating, to promote recovery and preserve life. It is not to treat the animal. First aid should be administered, the animal suitably restrained and then transported to the nearest open veterinary facility so that they may fully treat the emergency condition.

What is animal first aid?

”First aid refers to medical attention that is usually administered immediately after the injury occurs and at the location where it occurred. It often consists of a one-time, short-term treatment and requires little technology or training to administer” (Occupational Safety & Health Administration n.d.).

Animal first aid is based on the principles of medicine and surgery. The main purpose is to alleviate unnecessary suffering of the animal and give them the best chance of survival until a veterinarian is able to attend the animal.

In an emergency, when no veterinarian is immediately available to treat the animal, a first aider, such as an untrained person, veterinary nurse or the animal carer, may administer first aid treatment to animals as an interim measure. Aim to be prepared. Obtain the necessary skills to act quickly and suitably. Providing first aid “bridges the gap between ‘first response’ and ‘professional care’” (Philpott n.d.).

First aid skills will be invaluable when working in your animal care workplace, giving you the confidence to deal with incidents that may come your way (AAWS 2014).

Aims, principles and rules of first aid

The aims of first aid are to:

• Preserve life
• Prevent suffering
• Prevent the situation from deteriorating.

The seven principles of first aid are to:

1. Preserve life
2. Prevent deterioration
3. Promote recovery
4. Take immediate action
5. Calm the situation down
6. Call for medical assistance
7. Apply the relevant treatment.

 

The rules of first aid are to:

• Keep calm
• Maintain the airway
• Control the hemorrhage
• Seek assistance if required.

When you are responsible for looking after an animal, you must protect their welfare. This is your duty of care. However, you also have a duty of care to protect yourself and any other people or animals in the area.

When attending to an animal emergency, your first priority is to make sure that no one else becomes a casualty. So, before you assess the animal and plan your first aid procedures, you must first secure the scene. Check the immediate surroundings for any signs of risks or dangers. Control or remove the dangers, but only if it is safe to - thereby avoiding further risk to the animal or yourself. To secure the scene:

1. Assess the situation. Look for potential dangers to yourself, the injured animal, other people (including staff, clients, the general public) and other animals.
2. Where possible, minimise the risks, but make sure your actions do not put yourself or anyone else at further risk.
3. Now that you are sure there is no danger, you can triage the animal. Assess its condition and what it may require. Don’t move the animal except if it is in a life-threatening position, such as on a road and at risk of being hit by a car.
4. If needed call for veterinary or wildlife emergency assistance. They can advise you if you are in doubt as to what to do.
5. Apply first aid.
6. If needed, transport directly to veterinary or wildlife assistance.

The specific potential hazards and risks will vary depending on the situation. If you are unsure the scene is appropriately secured, seek assistance or advice.

Stressed and injured animals

When animals are sick or injured or visiting your animal care facility, they will be under some level of stress. Stress can lead to aggressive and defensive behaviour. Always evaluate the risks to both yourself, others and the animal before approaching or handling a sick or injured animal.

Animals have five basic reactions to stress or threat – the five ‘Fs’.

The five ‘Fs’ are:

1. Fight
2. Flight
3. Freeze
4. Faint
5. Fidget (or fooling around).

When an animal is distressed and in pain, they, just like humans, can act in ways they otherwise would not. When this happens, they may:

• further injure themselves
• heighten their anxiety levels
• become aggressive.

Animal temperaments

An animal’s temperament is its individual “personality, makeup, disposition, or nature” (American Kennel Club n.d.). In other words, how an animal usually behaves is determined by its temperament. Animals can react negatively to a hesitant or inexperienced handler because the animal may interpret this fear or hesitancy as aggressive behaviour. Occasionally another worker or the owner of the animal may be required to calm the animal to enable animal handling, examination and treatment.

People must know their limitations around animals and work within these limits to avoid injury. Through understanding animal temperament and behaviour, the risk of injury can be reduced. Animals can bite, scratch or give a swift, hard kick. So, observe them carefully at times and respect their size and strength. Where possible, don't stand behind them (Workplace Health and Safety Queensland 2018).

Animals must be handled carefully as their behaviour is not always predictable. There is no simple risk control that will eliminate hazards completely. However, you can avoid incidents with animals by assessing the animal prior to handling and having a discussion, if possible, with its owner about its temperament and the likelihood of the animal becoming aggressive.

Examine the following range of dog temperaments and the related behaviours.

• Sound temperament: Confident, relaxed and self-assertive.
• Unsound temperament: Not calm, confident or self-assertive and displays fearful behaviour.
• Shy temperament: Afraid of unfamiliar people, places and things.
• Sharp temperament: Reacts immediately to individual environmental stimuli without thought.
• Submissive temperament: Surrenders authority and control to its leader.
• Sharp-shy temperament: Displays aggression based on fear.
• Temperamental temperament: Cannot cope with environmental stress.
• Hyperactive temperament: Moving fast constantly.
• Over-aggressive temperament: Reacts with more aggression than the situation warrants such as lunging, snarling, hissing, biting, and scratching.
• Frightened temperament: This could present as freeze, flight, fight, faint or fidget.

Potential risks to yourself and other people

When providing first aid, there are several hazards you should consider that pose a risk to you, as the first aider, as well as to other people that may be assisting or are simply present in the general area.

The most common risks to yourself and other people include:

• bites, scratches and kicks
• envenomation
• zoonoses
• manual handling.

Bites, scratches and kicks

Animal behaviour is difficult to predict and may change without warning. There is always a risk of being bitten, scratched, kicked or harmed in other ways by the animal you are working with. However, while administering first aid, the potential risk is often higher because the animal is typically afraid, stressed and/or in pain. These conditions typically make even the most placid animal less receptive to handling.

All animals are capable of inflicting bites and scratches. The size of the animal, its dentition and jaw strength are all factors affecting the severity of bite they can deliver. Even a small animal may bite or scratch through your skin. Larger animals, such as livestock or kangaroos, can also inflict impact injuries (crushing, bruising and fractures) by kicking you.

Minimise the risk of bites, scratches and kicks

To minimise the risk of the animal injuring you or other people:

• use appropriate restraint and handling techniques and following the facility’s policies and procedures
• learn and recognise ‘warning’ signs typical for different species of animal
• handle aggressive or potentially dangerous animals with assistance
• wear appropriate PPE.

Anyone who is bitten or scratched may be exposed to biological hazards, which may be transmitted through saliva, secretions and blood of the animal that has bitten the person. If you are bitten or scratched, immediately wash with soap, preferably with an antiseptic soap, and running water. If the bite or scratch results in bleeding, immediately scrub the area for at least 15 minutes. After cleaning the area, apply a topical disinfectant and bandage to protect the wound. Depending on the severity of the injury, such as if you received a deep scratch or your foot is crushed by a large animal, seek medical treatment.

Regardless of the severity of the injury, inform your supervisor.

Envenomation

Envenomation is a risk in the animal care industry and occurs when a poisonous substance produced by an animal is injected into a person’s body by a bite, sting or penetrating wound.

Envenomation can be caused by snake or spider bites and marine animals. The type of envenomation will determine the specific treatment required.

Minimise the risk of envenomation

If the animal requiring first aid treatment is a venomous snake, your handling techniques and appropriate PPE are critical for your protection. If you are not confident handling snakes safely, ask for assistance.

If the animal requiring first ais is suspected of being bitten by a snake, make sure you check the immediate surroundings to ensure the snake has moved on or that is safely captured by an experienced snake catcher. Do not attempt to capture a wild snake yourself.

Treating snake bites

Australian venomous snakes produce venom that travels through the body in the lymphatic system, rather than in the bloodstream. The fluid in the lymphatic system is pushed around the body by physical movement. If a person is bitten by a snake:

1. Keep the person calm. Minimise their distress and movement.
2. Do not wash the area of the bite or try to suck out the venom. It is extremely important to retain traces of venom for use with venom identification kits.
3. Stop lymphatic spread. Do not use a tourniquet. Tourniquets can cause harmful restriction of blood flow. Instead, bandage the bite site firmly, splint and immobilise the whole limb. Ask the person to remain calm and as still as they can to minimise the movement of lymph around their body.
4. Seek medical attention.
5. Attend a hospital and receive antivenom.

Watch the following video (6:46 min) by St John WA, which demonstrates how to treat a snake bite.

Zoonoses

Diseases that can spread from animals to humans are called zoonotic diseases or zoonoses. Pathogens (infectious, disease-causing agents) may be transmitted to humans directly from the animal via blood or other bodily substances during diagnostic or treatment procedures, or indirectly from the animal’s environment.

It is important for you to understand that zoonoses may be contracted from both ill and apparently healthy animals.

Common zoonotic diseases in Australia include:

• Leptospirosis – a bacterial infection (Leptospira spp.) spread by contact with animal urine, such as infected dogs, pigs, cattle and rodents (NSW Health 2021).
• Psittacosis – a bacterial infection (Chlamydophila psittaci) transmitted by birds (NSW Health 2018).
• Q fever – a bacterial infection (Coxiella burnetiid) most commonly transmitted by cattle, sheep and goats (NSW Health 2019).
• Toxoplasmosis – a protozoan infection (Toxoplasma gondii) most commonly transmitted by cats in Australia. If infection occurs during pregnancy, it can cause “serious fetal disease” (Department of Health 2015).

Minimise the risk of zoonoses

Contamination by zoonoses can be preventable by taking several precautions including:

• practising good personal and hand hygiene
• using appropriate disinfectants
• keeping immunisations up to date
• providing prompt and effective first aid treatment to cuts and scratches
• using personal protective equipment such as overalls, gloves, boots, goggles, scrub tops over your normal uniform and aprons

Manual handling

Manual handling covers a wide range of activities including:

• Lifting
• Pushing
• Pulling
• Holding
• Carrying
• Handling and restraining animals (Better Heath Channel 2017)

Minimise the risk of manual handling injuries

Your back is particularly at risk of manual handling injuries. Follow the specific manual handling procedures outlined by your workplace. To reduce the risk of manual handling injuries while providing first aid to animals:

• Lift and carry heavy animals correctly by keeping the animal close to your body and lifting with your thigh muscles.
• Never attempt to lift or carry animals by yourself if you think they are too heavy. Always ask for assistance to lift an animal over 20 kg, regardless of whether you think you can lift it by yourself.
• Use stretchers, lifting tables and other devices to assist you whenever they are available.
• Organise the immediate area to reduce the amount of bending, twisting and stretching required to pick up an animal.
• Take frequent breaks.
• Cool down after handling heavy animals with gentle, sustained stretches.
• Improve your general fitness and strength.
• Warm up cold muscles with gentle stretches before lifting or carrying an animal (Better Heath Channel 2017).

Aggressive owners

Dealing with clients is sometimes harder than dealing with their pets. Having to deal with stressed owners in an animal emergency is a common occurrence. Some owners may be upset, frustrated or worried and some may become aggressive.

Good communication skills will help reduce the likelihood of verbal abuse or physical aggression. If you have a client who is aggressive, do not take them into a room that does not have two exits. Remember that in every consult or preparation room there are sharp instruments such as needles and scissors.

If the owner becomes aggressive you may have to tactfully ask them to leave the room. For example, you may have to say, “I can see that you are becoming upset over the stress of your pet, but I feel it would be better if you waited out in reception while staff look after your pet.” Or “The reason your pet is acting this way is that he/she sees that you’re upset, and we need to treat them.”

If you are concerned for your safety or the safety of any animals or other people present, do not hesitate to ask for assistance.

Mental trauma

The stress of witnessing an accident or serious injuries, or working with animals in emergencies can cause lasting trauma for the first aider, other animals, medical staff and bystanders.

Debriefing with colleagues about the incident and your involvement can help you process any potentially traumatic experiences and maybe a documented step in your workplace’s emergency policies and procedures. To minimise the risk of mental trauma or other mental health concerns related to your work, you may need to seek out mental health support services in your workplace or local area.

Other hazards to consider

The following table provides a summary of some of the other hazards that may occur to yourself and to other people, their effects and safe work practices that you can implement to ensure a safe course of action while providing first aid to an animal.

Hazard	Possible harmful effects to self and others	Methods to control or minimise risk
Traffic	Hit by a vehicle while attending to the animal	Assess the area prior to entering traffic - do not risk your or others’ lives in traffic Have another person keep watch of or direct traffic Wear a high-visibility vest or clothing to ensure you are visible to drivers Move the animal to a safe place before assessing and providing first aid
Environmental conditions	Heat stress or exhaustion Hypothermia Sunburn	Wear appropriate PPE to protect against elements Drink water in hot weather Erect shade or use an umbrella while assessing the animal and providing first aid in direct sunlight Move to an area with shade or protection from elements as soon as possible
Other	Other types of injury	Assess for potential hazards on and around the scene of the incident or situation, including: Fire, gas, fumes and electrical hazards Proximity to other people and animals Proximity to vehicles and machinery The stress level of owners (potential for verbal or physical aggression) Wet or slippery surfaces Blood, urine, other bodily fluid or potentially infectious tissue

Potential risks to the injured animal

Hazards and risks to the animal requiring first aid include additional injury to themselves if they are spooked or by being jolted against the hard materials that are used when transporting the animal.

An injured animal can be at risk of further harm while moving them, particularly if they have spinal injuries or are experiencing shock.

It is important to note when dealing with macropods (kangaroos, wallabies and pademelons) that the stress alone of being captured can cause myopathy (any disease that affects the muscles that control voluntary movement) leading to death. The animal does not have to have suffered any injury for this to occur. They may develop rhabdomyolysis (disintegration of the muscle fibres). This condition can occur anywhere from 24 hours post the stress up to a few weeks after the incident. The macropod will show stiffness and paralysis in the hindquarters, progressing to complete paralysis as it ascends the body. It will also salivate excessively. Death will typically occur within 2-14 days after the stressful incident (Ulyatt 2021).

With this in mind, care must be taken to ensure injured animals on the scene, regardless of species, are:

• not injured or harmed further (for example, go into shock) by human intervention
• not at risk of escaping, causing further injuries to themselves.

The following table provides a summary of some of the hazards that may occur to the injured animal, their effects and safe work practices which you can implement to ensure a safe course of action while providing first aid.

Hazard inflicted by	Possible harmful effects to the injured animal	Control methods to reduce hazard/risk
The injured animal	Trying to escape and causing injury to self or move into the line of traffic. Other animals on the scene – risk to them being injured or causing injury to the injured animal	Allow only experienced and trained staff to handle or restrain animals Restrain or confine additional animals Instruct staff in safe animal handling, including recognising ‘warning’ signs Use personal protective clothing
Traffic	Hit by a car	Have another person keeping watch of traffic Remove animal to a safe place before assessing and providing first aid
Environment	Heat stress/hyperthermia Hypothermia  Sunburn	Provide water in hot weather if safe for the animal Erect shade or use an umbrella while assessing the animal and providing first aid in the sun Move to an area with shade or protection from elements as soon as possible
First aider	Causes further injury or pain when assessing, capturing or transporting the animal	Humane, safe handling techniques Only assess what needs to be assessed and try not to move the animal unnecessarily Calm voice, reassuring tone

Potential risks to other animals

In a first aid situation, it is important to consider other animals in the area as well as other people. If a client brings an injured animal to the veterinary clinic, it is likely that there will be other animals present in the waiting room. If you are out in the field, other animals present may include dogs being walked nearby, other pets of the same owner or other animals in the same stable, herd or flock.

The following table provides a summary of some of the hazards that may occur to other animals, their effects and safe work practices which you can implement to ensure a safe course of action while providing first aid to the injured animal.

Hazard inflicted by	Possible harmful effects to other animals	Control methods to reduce hazard/risk
Animal needing first aid	The animal requiring first aid may become aggressive and lash out at surrounding animals If the animal requiring first aid goes into flight mode, they may move away quickly and knock over other animals If the animal requiring first aid is carrying a disease that is transmitted through blood or other bodily fluids, there is the risk of other animals coming into contact with the bodily fluids and becoming infected.	Secure the scene – move any animals away from the area or direct their owners to contain or take them away. Secure/restrain the injured animal if possible Clean and disinfect the area and any other surfaces the animal may have come into contact with during first aid treatment and transportation
Traffic	If the animal requiring first aid caused a change to traffic conditions, vehicles may swerve, and may hit other animals or other animals may run into traffic Animals killed by vehicles often remain by the side of the road, attracting scavengers, which can in turn be hit by vehicles.	Move the animal to be treated away from traffic as quickly as safely possible Move deceased animals away from the road to reduce the likelihood of scavengers being struck by vehicles
First aider	When the animal requiring first aid is part of a group, such as a mob of kangaroos, herd of cows or flock of birds and the group remains nearby, the presence of the first aider may increase the level of anxiety in the other animals When providing first aid requires separating mothers from their young, the separated animal is likely to experience heightened anxiety, and in the case of separated young, may require active care until the mother can return. If the first aider needs to open gates or cut fences to assist the animal, other animals in that paddock or enclosure may no longer be safely contained.	Use appropriate animal handling techniques Ask for assistance managing the other animals while you attend the animal requiring first aid Make sure all other animals in the same enclosure remain safely contained if there is no risk of contamination Where possible don’t separate mothers from their young. You may need to transport the healthy animal(s) as well as the animal requiring first aid. If the mother requires first aid, make sure the young are appropriately cared for – kept calm, warm and feed. Ask for assistance to manage multiple animals.

Minimise risks

No matter where you work there will be health and safety procedures that you must follow, and this includes when handling animals. By following the applicable safety procedures, you are ensuring a safe working environment is maintained. This will include the way you handle an animal, all the way through to using personal protective equipment (PPE).

Personal protective equipment

Use the required personal protective equipment (PPE) when dealing with animals. It is vital that all PPE is used in line with the manufacturer’s instructions and workplace procedures.

PPE must fit correctly to ensure it gives you the protection required when handling animals.

Review the following PPE that may be used when handling animals:

PPE (correctly fitted)	Benefits
Examination gloves	Change after each patient to prevent transmission of disease between patients; protection from zoonotic diseases
Animal handling gloves/gauntlets	Protection from bites and scratches
Boots	Protection from the ground/road or an animal stepping on the foot
Sunscreen; wide brimmed hat; shirt with collar and sleeves; long pants; rain jacket with hood; gumboots; warm clothing	Protection from prolonged exposure to UV radiation, heat, cold, rain, rough or wet terrain and insects
Fluro vest	Provides high visibility to surrounding traffic, reducing the risk of a traffic incident
Non-slip, closed in shoes	Protection from zoonotic diseases and slipping
Scrub top over uniform, disposable aprons or gowns	Change after each patient to prevent transmission of disease between patients; protection from zoonotic diseases; keeps uniform clean

Other safety equipment

Other safety equipment includes communication devices, such as mobile phones and radios.

The assistance required by the animal involved in the incident will depend on the level of emergency as well as its species and the particulars of the situation. In other words, while first aid may be necessary, the urgency of transporting the animal to a vet will depend on the seriousness of the situation. You may also need to follow other workplace policies and procedures, such as reporting animal abuse to a welfare body.

Workplace policies and procedures for first aid

Your workplace should have animal first aid emergency policies and procedures documented for all staff members to follow. These policies are in place to protect the welfare of staff and the animals in their care.

The Australian Veterinary Association has examples of a multitude of policies covering a wide range of topics relating to animals. For information, review their policies and position statements. Ask your workplace if they have specific policies and procedures that need to be adhered to.

Some of the subjects covered by the Australian Veterinary Association include:

• Animal abuse
• Euthanasia of injured wildlife
• Zoos, aquaria, sanctuaries and animal parks
• Guidelines for the tethering of animals
• Companion animals confined to vehicles
• Heat stress in the horse
• Transport of horses.

Always follow the policies and procedures in your own workplace.

Organisational emergency procedures

Your workplace will have procedures for a variety of subjects related to your particular field of work. Work health and safety (WHS) procedures may include:

• handling animals
• hazard identification and risk minimisation
• manual handling techniques
• controlling the spread of disease, infection control and biohazard management
• incident reporting
• seeking advice from supervisors
• use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
• emergency procedures
• potential escape of an animal
• injury to an animal or other animals, staff and potentially the public.

For example, you should follow your workplace procedures for manual handling of large animals, such as doing a two-person lift of animals heavier than 15-20 kgs.

Emergency plan

Your organisation should have a tailored animal policies and procedures document to follow in the event of needing to apply first aid so that your response is planned, coordinated, prompt and effective.

Ask your animal care workplace to provide and discuss their animal first aid emergency policies and procedures with you, then practice them until you feel confident. Being confident about what to do in an emergency will help reduce stress and prevent mistakes or further injury to animals.

Details may include:

• your responsibilities during an emergency
• communication protocols
• when to notify specific emergency services
• contact details for medical assistance
• contact details of key staff to contact for assistance
• how to alert staff in the workplace to an incident or potential emergency
• other back-up services available during an emergency, including contact details
• location of emergency equipment, such as a first aid kit
• emergency equipment and procedure training tailored to individual roles in the workplace
• a review process after the emergency.

The following checklist is adapted from a draft provided by Safe Work Australia. Your workplace may have some or all the items on this checklist for their own first aid emergency plan.

Animal first aid emergency policies and procedures
Responsibilities Nominated staff with the appropriate skills are responsible for specific tasks during an emergency such as conducting CPR All staff are trained and know what to do, or who to contact in an emergency Procedures for specific tasks are made available to all staff
Emergency contact details Relevant emergency contact details are accessible and on display in a central location Contact details are kept up to date
First aid Conduct a first aid assessment to determine the best options for the animal (triage) The organisation has qualified first aiders and appropriate first aid facilities All staff know the location of first aid facilities and know who the qualified first aid staff are
Post-incident follow-up The organisation has procedures to notify regulators if there is a notifiable incident Procedures are in place to make sure the cause of the incident is investigated and steps are taken to prevent a reoccurrence The organisation has procedures for the welfare of staff after an incident, such as counselling or medical treatment
Review The emergency plan is tested through practice to evaluate its effectiveness A staff member documents the results of the practice A staff member reviews the emergency plan and communicates with other staff if there is an update

Review Safe Work Australia’s Emergency plans and procedures for more information or speak to your supervisor about the policies and procedures in your workplace.

As the following video explains, during an emergency it can be incredibly hard to swiftly find out who to contact or where to go for help. Having a plan will save precious time and could mean saving an animal’s life. Always have important contact and location information stored on your phone, a first aid kit handy and know where to find emergency 24-hour help wherever you go and before you go (Animal Ethics Infolink n.d.).

Assess your options for assisting the animal

One of the steps in your workplace animal emergency policies and procedures document should include assessing options for assisting an animal during an emergency. The process for assessing the options is also known as triage.

Triage is the process of determining of urgency in which an animal requires medical attention. The urgency depends on the likelihood that the animal will die, deteriorate and/or suffer pain.

Your first triage decision is to determine whether it is safe to give the animal first aid. There are two situations where you should not provide first aid to an animal requiring it:

1. When the time taken to apply first aid will cause the animal to deteriorate. In these situations, you must transport the animal to the vet as soon as possible.
2. When providing first aid is too risky for either your safety or the animal’s. In these situations, ask for assistance to capture and transport the animal to the vet.

If it is appropriate to provide first aid, you will need to assess the physical condition and vital signs of the animal to determine what help it requires. The first aid treatment(s) you decide to apply should be according to the animal’s medical needs, which you will learn about later in this module.

However, in brief, examine the animal to determine if they are ill, have been involved in an accident, are under immediate threat of loss of life, or can wait for veterinary assistance. Then, assess the best steps to take, using the seven principles of first aid to guide you:

1. Preserve life
2. Prevent deterioration
3. Promote recovery
4. Take immediate action
5. Calm the situation down
6. Call for medical assistance
7. Apply the relevant treatment.

You are to follow your animal workplace policies and procedures throughout each step.

Once you have made your assessment, your options for assisting the animal may include any one of the following (the order may change depending on the urgency):

• provide immediate first aid to the animal or seek assistance
• prepare the animal for transport
• contact your destination clinic and notify them that you are on the way
• transport the animal to the veterinary hospital
• notify other staff of the incident
• if you haven’t already as part of a previous action, notify your supervisor.

Triage occurs as soon as you arrive on the scene or take the phone call. You will be assessing the animal’s need for first aid versus immediate transport. In other words, you need to decide how long, if at all, veterinary treatment can be delayed. The video, 'Triage: Sorting Urgency' (2:34 min), explains that the goal of triage is to quickly sort casualties into three different categories.

Appropriate triage will give the animal the best chance of survival. Watch the following video for more information about how to triage an emergency situation.

For further information on triage, review the article How Emergency Animal Hospitals Work (the triage system).

Communication during triage

Communication skills are vital during triage to obtain correct information swiftly. There are a variety of appropriate techniques that can be useful to obtain and convey key information effectively in your animal care workplace, especially when seeking advice and assistance from your supervisor or communicating with clients and other staff.

Triage may take place over the phone or in person. Phone triage occurs when a person calls in to describe a potential animal emergency. The person taking the phone call may provide lifesaving first aid advice over the phone, such as how to control bleeding.

In-person triage occurs when the animal presents at the clinic or you are in the field with the animal. The initial triage includes taking a history from the owner, if possible, and assessing the vital signs of the animal. For either type of triage, the aim is to determine the risk to the animal and how immediately it needs veterinary attention.

Whether talking to the client over the phone or in person, remember that some owners will panic and exaggerate the problem and others will be very calm and underplay what is occurring. It is best to work with the thought in mind:

"If you are concerned, I am concerned".

It is vital that you remain calm. The person may be emotional, anxious, in shock or in freeze mode. If you are calm, you will not feed into the state they are in. Calmly lead them with questions to gather from them what the situation is and what they are seeing.

Don’t forget, if you are not confident triaging an animal, seek assistance.

Phone triage

“Owners can provide significant medical assistance at the scene of the injury. At the time of the initial telephone call, the owner should be questioned about the level of consciousness, breathing pattern, type of injury or toxicity, and even some aspects of the animal's perfusion (eg, gum color, level of responsiveness, heart rate). The first concern is for the safety of the owner.” (Linklater 2020)

Phone triage has different challenges compared to triaging in person because you are unable to read body language. Further information on how to communicate to get the best possible results will be explored next.

Remember not to diagnose. You can stress to the owner that it is essential for them to arrive ASAP as you are very concerned, but do not give a diagnosis. It is illegal for anyone that is not a vet to diagnose or suggest a diagnosis. However, you can provide first aid advice.

If you receive a phone call about a potential emergency or first aid situation, use the following procedure to collect all the vital information:

1. Ask the person’s name and the phone number from which they are calling. This is important in the event the call is cut off.
2. Ask about the nature of the emergency, including a very basic assessment of the physical condition and vital signs to determine the seriousness of the emergency:
   1. Is the animal breathing?
   2. Is the animal conscious?
3. If the answer is “no” to either of the previous questions, the animal needs to be brought to a vet immediately (life-threatening). If the animal is breathing and conscious, you may be able to spend a little more time on the phone and provide first aid advice.
4. If you think it is safe to spend more time on the phone, ask for the patient's name, breed 2020and more details about the incident. This will allow you to better prepare for their arrival as well as provide the owner with appropriate transport advice.
5. Before hanging up, ensure the person knows where the clinic is and ascertain how long it will take for them to arrive.

Watch the following video, ‘Client Communications: The Art of Phone Triage’ (4:50 min), for more information regarding the processes involved in phone triage.

Active listening skills

Communication skills are especially important to facilitate speedy but accurate triage, increasing the likelihood of the animal’s survival. The overarching communication skills are to:

• speak clearly and calmly when asking for help and seeking or giving information to other staff or clients in the workplace.
• use active listening and questioning techniques to gain information and to confirm that you have understood what you have heard.

When speaking to the owner or other people involved in the animal incident, remember to fully concentrate so that you understand the complete message by using active listening.

Examine and apply the following steps to active listening:

1. Pay attention – look at the speaker
2. Show that you are listening – nod, smile, say ‘yes’ occasionally
3. Provide feedback – reflect the words back to the person and ask questions to make sure you have the correct information
4. Defer judgement – give the person the time they need to finish conveying the information before offering advice
5. Respond appropriately – remain open, honest and respectful (Mind Tools Content Team n.d.).

Review the video 'Improve Your Listening Skills with Active Listening' (2:39 min) to further sharpen your listening skills.

Open and closed questioning

We have discussed active listening. Now it’s time to learn how to ask and use open-ended and closed-ended questions when seeking information from owners or witnesses, or assistance and advice from your supervisor or others.

Open-ended questions will give you more than just a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. The aim is to gain the information you need to make good first aid decisions. Ask appropriate questions from the outset of the incident to gain a short, sharp history of what has happened to the animal or to gain specific advice from your supervisor.

‘Funnel’ your questions by beginning with open-ended questions and then end with closed-ended questions. The closed-ended questions will help gain specific details or information that may not have been communicated through open questioning. Therefore, funnel your questions by asking broad open-ended questions. Finish off with closed (clarifying) questions.

Why are open-ended questions important?

• The conversation is controlled from the person asking to the person being questioned.
• They cause a person to think and reflect.
• Answers may include background information and details that would not have been evident otherwise.
• Can be used in conjunction with active listening – ask an open-ended question related to the information the participant has given you when they have finished talking.

Open-ended questions begin with words like ‘what, how, why, describe, tell me about or what do you think about’. Examples of open-ended questions are:

For gaining information during triage:

• What happened to Ramona the cat before you came into the vet today?
• What concerns do you have?
• Tell me about the behaviours you have seen Watermelon the guinea pig display.
• What other issues has your animal been experiencing?

Seeking advice or assistance:

• What is the best way to stop this bleeding?
• How can I best support this animal when I pick it up?
• What do I do next?

Examples of closed-ended questions could include:

• Has your dog been to us before for grooming?
• How old is your cat?
• Is the guinea pig urinating?
• When was the last time he ate something?

You will notice that the open-ended types of questions are broad, with an aim to gather information without directing the conversation too much. Open-ended questions allow the other person to provide as much detail as they feel is appropriate. There are no right or wrong open-ended questions, but always remember the aim and shape your questions to address your specific situation to get the animal in your care on the path to speedy recovery (Diaz et al. 2022).

Closed-ended questions are more specific, requiring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers or very specific information. Closed-ended questions are still very useful. You will gain clearer, more relevant results by collecting information through the use of open-ended questions at the start of the conversation, then clarifying and refining that information with closed-ended questions. (Diaz et al. 2022). The process of refining the information is called ‘funnelling’, as represented in the following figure.

If the conversation takes place on the phone, it is often more difficult to assess the non-verbal cues. Therefore, using these communication techniques will help you to check and confirm that you understand the information you are receiving.

Wild bird strike

Heath problem: Loss of consciousness from impact

Teagan works as the receptionist at Your Local Veterinary Clinic. One day at work she received the following phone call.

In this scenario, Teagan has assessed the situation to be a non-emergency. She has ensured the safety of both Andrew and the bird and given Andrew advice about how to provide basic first aid.