Strength Training Approaches

Strength can be broadly defined as the ability to produce force against external resistance. This could be force produced to move an object, or force produced to resist an object’s effort to move you. In its purest athletic sense, strength is determined by how much weight (kg) a person can lift using a given technique, but strength has many other applications across sports and tasks involved in general living.

A short history of strength training

Strength training is not a modern invention. Egyptian tombs reveal pictures of people lifting sandbags for exercise. Evidence of these types of strengthening exercises was also found in Germany, China, Scotland and Spain around the same time. Weight-lifting competitions date back to early Greek civilisation. These events eventually lead to the origination of the modern Olympic Games (Morgan (n.d.).

The following image depicts evidence of weight training from 3500 B.C.

Early pioneers of strength training

The early pioneers of strength training didn’t have the sophisticated equipment or understanding of the physiology of strength training to work with, but they did have a desire to lift heavy things for fun, fitness development, and sport.

Chinese documents dating back to 3600 B.C. give details of exercise regimes used by soldiers preparing themselves for battle. Recreational heavy lifting was also a common practice for fitness at this time with equipment like ‘Qiao Guan’ (a heavy gate bar) and ‘Kang Ding” (a heavy meat-cooking vessel with handles). Written records tell the legend of a local strong man called Wuhuo who allegedly lifted a Kang Ding weighing around 500kg (Hefferman, 2014).

The following artwork from Ancient China shows weightlifting competitors in action.

In the period between 618-907 AD, weightlifting became a compulsory part of Chinese army training. The traditional lifting implements were replaced by weights made to prescribed specifications, much like dumbbells going up in 5kg increments (Hefferman, 2014). Writings from this time speak of “wooden bars with big stones on the end” and stone “bars” weight up to 150kg. This was essentially the beginning of barbell training. Other records suggest that strength lifting clubs started to form during the Han Dynasty (206BC – 220AD) as weightlifting gained popularity (Hefferman, 2014).

Dumbbells, as we know them today, are thought to have originated in the 1700s when a rod was inserted between two church bells. When the “clapper” was removed from the bells, they became silent, or “dumb”, hence the word “dumbbell” (Morgan, n.d.). During the 1800s, Indian clubs, which are cast iron balls with a handle, became popular with weightlifters and were developed further over the coming years to resemble the dumbbells we use today.

Click on the arrows below the following images to view early variations of dumbbells (Indian clubs and early versions of dumbbells.

^{Image 1 source: https://physicalculturestudy.com/2022/01/19/indian-clubs-in-victorian-britain/
Image 2 source: https://troyfitness.com/blogs/blog/dumbbells-the-original-form-of-fitness-equipment#:~:text=In%20its%20most%20basic%20form,momentum%20in%20long%20jumping%20competitions.}

The strongest men in the world

By the late 1800s professional strength events were commonplace in Europe and America. Many athletes proclaimed themselves as the “strongest man in the world”. This led to men from different parts of the world developing their own special lifting techniques to differentiate themselves from the masses. One weightlifting contest held in Europe in 1878 featured over 20 different lifts including lifting with fingers only, squats, one and two-handed jerks, weighted swings, overhead presses, a bench press of sorts and even variations of what we know today as the snatch and clean and jerk (Archibald, 2012).

To find a consistent competition to measure the strongest men in the world, a proposal was made in 1901 by Marquis Luigi Monticelli-Obizzi of Italy which included a list of suggestions that would start to refine and standardise strength lifts towards the modern-day Olympic lifts we compete in today. However, variations of the other strength lifts like squatting, deadlifting and presses like the bench press and shoulder press were still used in training programmes to develop strength for the primary competitive lifts. These lifts were refined during the 20th century with competitions beginning to re-emerge for these lifts in the 1950s (Archibald, 2012).

The following images show a deadlift in the early 1900s and a single arm press in 1910.

^{Image 1 Source: https://atlasstrengthshop.com/blogs/news/history-of-strength-sports
Image 2 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strength_training}

Equipment development

Adjustable, plate loaded barbells were introduced in the early 1900s making weight training more accessible to people of all sizes and strengths. Sports coaches began seeing the benefits that strength training could afford their athletes and resistance training techniques started to be used in physical education programmes in schools.

While a few machine weights were invented in the late 1800s, machine weights hit the market proper under the Nautilus brand in the 1970s, and plate loaded machines followed in the 1980s.

Women began participating in resistance training more during the early 1970s until the aerobics wave hit in the mid 1970s and continued into the 80s. An abundance of research proclaiming the benefits of strength training was published in the 1980s, leading to a new resurgence in strength training by men and women alike by the end of the decade (Morgan, n.d.).

The following images show versions of weight machines from the 1890s and the Nautilis multi-exercise machine.

^{Image 1 source: https://suzannekasparson.wordpress.com/2017/02/01/a-guide-to-nautilus-machines/
Image 2 source: https://www.sutori.com/en/story/strength-training--5KdeNDktC63DgousjbdwqoWT}

Strength training is now hugely popular amongst both sporting athletes and recreational lifters. Men and women alike are seeing the benefits of strength training across their lifecycle, with a more recent focus on resistance training in older populations occurring as our population ages. While more is now known about programming approaches for strength training than in its formative years, the fundamentals of strength training are the same as what they were in ancient times. That is, lift something heavy a few times, rest and do it again. The objective for strength athletes is also no different than in was in ancient times in that every time they enter the gym, they strive to lift slightly more, which is also known as progressive overload.

Overriding principles of strength training from a resistance training perspective include:

Characteristic	Description
Lift heavy	Strength training typically uses loads above 85% of 1RM (1 Repetition Maximum).
Longer recovery needed	As strength training involves maximal or near-maximal loads, muscles require more time for full recovery before reproducing the same force.
Moderate training volume	Strength training emphasizes intensity per lift rather than the total number of lifts. Longer recovery times limit the volume in a single session.
Higher sets/lower reps	Lifting near maximal weight limits the number of repetitions, necessitating more sets to stimulate muscle changes.
Split training programs	Strength sessions focus on fewer body parts in one session compared to other forms of training, making it less time-efficient.
Compound (multi-joint) exercises	Strength training predominantly employs exercises targeting multiple large muscle groups to generate maximum force.
Tempo	Strength repetitions are generally slower due to heavy weights, allowing for the recruitment of more motor units and, consequently, more force production (i.e., greater strength).

Benefits of strength training

Strength training is more than just building muscle; it's a holistic approach to fitness with numerous advantages. Below, we'll categorise these benefits into specific areas, shedding light on how strength training can positively impact various aspects of your life.

The potential for human strength

Let’s look at the big three strength lifts.

1. Bench Press
2. Barbell Back-squat
3. Deadlift.

Bench Press World Records

Bench press world records are listed as equipped, with the use of a benching shirt, and unequipped or “raw”, without a benching shirt.

• Equipped world record – Powerlifter Jimmy Kolb from the USA lifted 612kg at the IPA Hillbilly Havoc meet on February 4th , 2023. To put that in perspective, this is the equivalent of pressing a grizzly bear! However, it would appear the bench press shirt makes a big difference...
• Unequipped world record: Julius Maddox (USA) pressed 355kg with wrist-straps only on February 21, 2021.
• Female equipped record: Rae-Ann Coughenour-Miller (USA) holds the world record at 274.4kg which she set in 2021.
• We have some strong women in NZ too. Taranaki woman Ashleigh Hoeta smashed the NZ record by 50kg in 2022 with an equipped lift of 227.5kgs!

Barbell Back Squat World Records

The official drug-tested unassisted barbell back squat record is held by Ray Orlando Williams (USA) who lifted 490kg in 2019.

Nathan Baptist (USA) lifted 595kg in 2021 wearing a multi-ply suit and knee wraps. While there was some doubt as to the depth of the lift, it was performed in a sanctioned event and judges ruled he had achieved the required depth.

As for females, the heaviest recorded squat was performed by Leah Reichman (USA) in 2021 where she lifted an equipped 399.1kg.

Watch the following video, which shows Nathan Baptist’s world-record squat attempt.

Deadlift World Records

Men’s official record, with deadlift suit and wrist straps. A much publicised lift by renowned Icelandic strongman, and Game of Thrones giant, Hafthor Julius Bjornsson (aka “the Mountain”). Bjornsson lifted 501kg in 2020. The heaviest lift with no deadlift suit or straps is 460.4kg completed by Benedikt Magnusson (also of Iceland) in 2011. American Becca Swanson owns both the equipped and unequipped deadlift records. Equipped, she lifted 315kg in 2005, and unequipped 305kg in 2006.

Watch the following video, 501kg Deadlift- Hafthor Bjornsson, to see his world record lift.

The following exercise recommendations come from the American College of Sports Medicine and Schoenfeld et al (2021).

ACSM suggests the following general guidelines for targeting strength in training:

• Optimal strength approaches include the use of concentric, eccentric and isometric muscle contractions along with the performance of both bilateral and unilateral exercises.
• Sequencing of exercises to optimise the preservation of exercise intensity appears to be to train large muscle groups before small, multiple-joint exercises before single joint and higher intensity (load) exercises before lower intensity.
• Novice exercisers should begin with training programmes that include loads that correspond to an 8-12 repetition range, then after 3-6 months of regular training start to reduce repetitions and increase the load with an eventual focus on heavy loading (1-6RM) using longer 3-5 min rest periods between sets.

Programme training guidelines

Here are the programme training guidelines you should use for strength training in a little more detail.

Frequency

There is clear evidence that a dose-response effect is present for strength training. This means that the muscle strength response is greater when you train a muscle group multiple times a week. However, there may also be a point of diminishing returns. Ralston et al (2018) performed a meta-analysis on studies completed related to the effect of weekly training frequency on strength gain. They concluded that targeting muscle groups more than once a week should elicit greater strength responses than training them only once (as long as total volume is increased also), but that studies that evaluated the benefit of training a muscle group 3-4 times a week, failed to produce significant improvements in strength over more moderate frequencies of exercise (when the training volumes were equated). That said, the authors concluded that frequency of exercise (and associated increases in total training volume) was a primary driver for strength increases.

Given the time availability of most clients, it would appear that the aim should be to train each major muscle group at least twice a week. This will be most efficient if done by splitting programmes into muscle group target days (e.g. Back day, Leg day, etc.) or by working two muscle groups per session. Novice lifters would be best to target multiple muscle groups in one session, whereas advanced lifters might need to target one major muscle group a session (with some synergist work done also). This would necessitate more individual sessions a week for optimal strength gains.

Another key point to consider is that a training micro-cycle doesn’t have to be a week. Let’s say a client has three days to devote to strength training and you want to target muscle groups twice a week, this can be tricky. It may be better to use a 10-day micro-cycle in this instance where all major muscle groups are targeted in a 10-day span because that will fit more easily into the client schedule. This may include doing one workout twice the first week and the second once, but then doing the 2nd workout twice the next week (and the first workout once).

Volume/Intensity

Due to the higher intensity demands of each lift (i.e. heavy loads), volume is mainly achieved by the number of exercises completed and the number of sets completed for each. Research shows a clear strength gain advantage from using heavier loads compared to lighter loads when the number of sets are similar. This appears to be true for all parts of the body and across gender and age. According to Schoenfeld et al (2021), the strength related benefits of heavier loads are observed independent of training volume. From this, it can be inferred that load appears to be the dominant variable for gaining strength.

Most studies report that optimal strength gains appear to result from training loads relating to the repetition range of 1 – 5 repetitions. This would generally involve loads of over 80% of 1RM. Compared with hypertrophy and muscular endurance training, total volume of strength sessions is quite low. Unlike hypertrophy, the intention of strength training is not to exhaust the muscles by performing multiple submaximal exercises to achieve muscular failure, but rather to recruit the maximal number of motor units possible each lift.

When starting out on a strength programme (after completing base resistance training of course) ACSM suggests performing 2-3 exercises on each muscle group and doing between 4-6 repetitions for 3-4 sets. As you progress with your training the number of exercises per muscle group could increase to 6-8 and repetition zones could be anywhere between 1-6 repetitions. The number of sets you use will depend on the loading and associated repetition used with lower repetition loads typically requiring a higher number of sets (6-7) and higher repetition loads needing fewer sets (4-5).

Rest

Rest between sets will be dependent on the approach being used, but most studies report ideal rest periods of between 2 and 5 minutes. Strength training achieves high motor-unit activation which means greater amounts of ATP are used to fuel each contraction. A longer rest is required to fully replenish the nutrients that fuel contractions. Given that the purpose of strength training is to use near maximal levels of force for each repetition, it is important that full recovery is afforded to muscles between sets, otherwise the load will need to be reduced and less than optimal motor-unit recruitment will be achieved in subsequent sets.

Training velocity

Strength training is all about the quality of repetition, not volume or explosiveness. Therefore, moderate contraction velocities are recommended. ACSM suggests a lifting velocity of 1-2 seconds concentric and 1-2 seconds eccentric. In truth, the concentric phase of a lift for strength training is often written as “ALAIT” or “As Long As It Takes” to get the weight up.

Variety

Variety appears to be less important for strength results than other training modalities. The key is using exercises that elicit the greatest recruitment of motor units. These typically involve exercises targeting large muscle groups and multiple joints. However, a study by Fonseca et al (2014) may suggest that some variation in exercise choice is beneficial for strength gains. In their study, they compared four different strength training approaches: Constant intensity using the same exercises, Constant intensity using varied exercises, Varied intensity using the same exercises and Varied intensity using varied exercises. The group who used constant intensity with varied exercises had greater increases in strength compared to the other groups (although this was more apparent in trained than untrained individuals). This study appears to suggest that as long as the intensity of exercise remains constantly high, strength gains can be achieved using a range of multi-joint, large muscle group exercises (Fonseca et al, 2014).

Based on the programme training guidelines, these are the programming variables you should use with clients with different training experiences during a session of strength training:

Training variables	Novice Strength Guidelines	Intermediate Strength Guidelines	Advanced Strength Guidelines
Number of exercises	1 exercise per muscle group per session Suggest targeting multiple muscle groups in one session.	2 exercises per muscle group per session.  Best to split training into more targeted sessions – e.g, chest and triceps	2-3 exercises per muscle group
Load	75-85% of 1RM	85-95%  1RM	85%-100% 1RM
Repetitions	4-6	2-6	1-5
Sets	3-4	4-5	4-7
Rest intervals	3 mins	3-5 mins	3-5 mins
Velocity/te	2-1-2-1	2-1-ALAIT-1	2-1-ALAIT-1
Frequency	Attempt to target main muscle groups twice weekly Total of 2-3 sessions a week.	Attempt to target main muscle groups twice weekly Total of 3-4 sessions a week.	Attempt to target main muscle groups twice weekly Total of 4-5 sessions a week.

Watch the following video from the Australian Institute of Fitness called, Strength Training, for a quick overview of strength training.

Applying progressive overload in strength training

The training variables associated with strength training will ultimately be chosen for a programme based on the individual needs of a client. In general, new clients will start with lower loads and work towards the higher end of the repetition count for strength training. All sessions should start with compound exercises targeting the major muscle groups and focus on great form without working to absolute failure. This is vital to ready the muscles and joints for the high loads that are to come. As clients improve their strength, load will increase, and repetitions will be lowered, and rest will increase. The volume of exercise performed on each muscle group will also start to increase (exercise number and sets), which will likely result in training splits to target different muscle groups on different days.

In terms of load increase, ACSM suggests that when training at a specific RM load, it is recommended that 2-10% increase in load be applied when the individual can perform the current workload for one to two repetitions over the desired number in the set. It is common when using this training approach that fatigue will lead to a reduction in repetitions in later sets. A general rule of thumb used by strength specialist trainers is that when a client can lift the desired number of repetitions for all of the allocated sets, then a progression is required. This could take the form of additional sets, or more commonly, additional load. It is important to bear in mind that when a client increases weight in a given lift, they are unlikely to complete all repetitions in the later sets which will require a slight reduction in load.

Strength training approaches

While muscular endurance and hypertrophy training approaches are wide and varied, traditional strength training is somewhat simpler. Strength training essentially revolves around using large muscle groups to lift heavy loads. Many athletes refer to strength training as a “grind” in the gym as there can be a lot of repetition and sessions are often quite drawn out due to shorter sets and longer rest intervals required. A review by Tan (1999) suggested that while training variation for strength training has been investigated, there is little conclusive evidence that variation in strength training approach is effective or necessary. That said, from a motivation and interest perspective it may be worthwhile considering changing up traditional approaches for short periods of time in the strength training schedule.

Strength training is often the foundation of other training modalities like power and speed training. In the early phases of speed/power training, athletes will often use contrast approaches that are a mix of traditional strength lift combined with more explosive movement. There are also some crossovers between strength and hypertrophy approaches as hypertrophy training will often cycle through heavier load lifting and lighter load lifting. For this reason, some of the approaches discussed below will have already been introduced in previous learning and others will relate to future topics, however, it is important that you see how these modes of training intertwine for some clients based on their goals.

Before we dive into some common strength training approaches, let’s spend a little time discussing a couple of key considerations related to strength training that will help you decide how you go about develop programmes for your clients.

Bilateral vs unilateral training

A frequent topic of discussion within the strength and conditioning industry is the use of unilateral exercises compared to bi-lateral exercises. Some experts argue that unilateral exercises are more sport-specific given the single leg weight bearing requirements of most running sports. The vast majority of strength training programmes are bi-lateral in nature. This is not surprising given that strong relationships exist between bilateral strength and sprinting, jumping, change of direction and peak power output (all important for sport). Turner and Comfort (2018) reviewed several studies that compared the training effects of unilateral and bilateral training approaches and concluded that bilateral exercises may serve as a better foundation for improving athletic strength and power abilities. They reasoned that this was because the greater stability afforded during bilateral exercises allowed for heavier loading and greater potential to produce force. That said, these authors suggested that unilateral exercises be programmed as accessory lifts to bilateral lifts during the general preparation phase of training for running orientated sporting athletes as there was evidence that unilateral training translated well to sprint speed and agility.

Variable resistance training and strength

While the majority of research points towards constant heavy load resistance training for optimal strength improvement, there is a small body of evidence that supports the use of some variable resistance training in this training phase. Variable resistance training refers to a training method that alters the external resistance during the exercise in order to maximise muscle force throughout the range of motion. Traditionally, this method of training involves the use of chains or elastic bands during exercises such as the back squat or bench press which are used to alter the loading profile of an exercise forcing the athlete to match changes in joint leverage requirements, and overcome mechanical disadvantages at various joint angles during the lift (Turner and Comfort, 2018). A meta-analysis evaluating variable training with elastic bands was completed by Soria-Gila et al (2015) which indicated that greater strength gains were produced during the bench press exercise following variable resistance training compared to traditional strength training of the same volume. This indicates that variable training may be an option to consider implementing for variety in a strength training phase.

The following images show examples of training with resistance (chains and bands).

^{Image 1 source: https://www.cambridgeathletic.com/post/accommodating-resistance-how-chains-can-make-you-stronger
Image 2 source: https://steelsupplements.com/blogs/steel-blog/bench-pressing-with-bands-is-it-worth-it}

Training to failure

Training with heavy loads will ultimately lead to increases in muscular strength, but do you need to train to failure to elicit strength results? The idea behind training to failure is that maximal loads will lead to greater adaptations in strength compared to training with sub-maximal loads. The science doesn’t completely back this theory up, and it comes with a warning that constantly training to failure may result in over-use injuries. Two meta-analyses evaluating the effects of training to failure on strength found that training to failure did not elicit greater strength gains compared to not training to failure. The authors of these meta-analyses noted that if training to failure is incorporated into training programmes, it should be used sparingly (Peterson et al, 2005; Davies et al, 2016). While training to failure likely stimulates the recruitment of high threshold motor units, this type of training cannot be sustained for long and can seriously impact on the volume of lifting you can achieve in a session. Instead, the authors concluded that a stimulus load of 85-90% of 1RM for multiple reps (leaving one in the tank), leads to equal strength gains in untrained subjects. This indicates that training to failure is not a requirement for strength training as long as appropriate strength loads are used. Note: Training to failure is commonly used for hypertrophy training, but these exercises are performed at more moderate loads. In fact, Nobrega and Libardi (2016) suggest that repetitions to failure seem essential for increases in strength and muscle mass when training with lower loads. These authors also suggest that the more trained a lifter is, the more hypertrophy benefit they may get from heavy lifting to failure, however, this was not true of strength responses.

Knowing your 1RM

To be as effective as possible, strength programmes should be programmed off a true 1RM of each lift. Novice lifters are not ready for this type of assessment, so a multiple rep max assessment could be used to estimate 1RM. Given that novices will work with lower loads and higher rep counts initially means the accuracy of their 1RM estimate isn’t as important.

StrongLifts 5 x 5 method

This is a lifting approach that has been around for 60 years! It is a great starting point for strength training. It consists of compound barbell exercises like squats, bench presses, and deadlifts. It is very simple to follow: 5 sets of 5 reps at 85% of 1RM load. The suggestion for newer lifters is to complete 3 workouts per week with at least 1 rest day between them. More advanced lifters may decide to split the programme further into chest and shoulder, Back, and Leg and do each twice across the week (or 10 days). The aim of this approach is to increase weight gradually over time. For novices, a programme starts with lightweight (around 50% of 1RM and then builds by adding 5% of the weight each session until the strength zone of 85% 1RM is achieved. A widely suggested approach for programming this method is to split major lifts into two workouts and do one of them twice a week and one of them once a week (switching the order every other week). An example of the suggested programme split is below:

StrongLifts 5 x 5 workout
Workout A	Workout B
All exercises are 5 sets of 5 reps at 85% 1RM	All exercises are 5 sets of 5 reps at 85% 1RM
Exercises: Squat Bench press Barbell row.	Exercises: Squat Overhead press Deadlift (1 set of 5 only initially) Accessory exercise (e.g., calf raises, triceps etc.)

In its original format, this approach can get quite tedious (especially squats x 3 weekly). Some trainers prefer to replace the squats in workout 2 with 5 sets of deadlifts and add accessory exercises like calf raises, hamstring curls or triceps exercises. As you progress, the range of exercises you can do can also spread beyond the primal movements.

Wave loading

Some experts argue that traditional constant intensity lifts like 5 x 5 lose some impact over time as the brain and muscles get used to the approach. Another option for strength training that is popular amongst intermediate and advanced lifters is wave-loading. Wave loading is a progressive rep and intensity scheme that has a lifter perform a series of sets with increasingly more weight and less reps per wave. The initial wave is followed by 2 more waves, each starting slightly higher in weight (but running through the same rep scheme as the first wave). Wave loading is supposed to be an effective means of increasing strength due to using post-activation potentiation (PAP) to its advantage. PAP essentially describes the phenomenon by which the force exerted by a muscle is increased due to its previous contraction (we will discuss this further in the power training topic). Put simply, wave loading helps the nervous system fire in an advanced state leading to greater motor-unit activation which can lead to maximal strength increases.

Wave loading typically results in more sets of an exercise being performed than in traditional approaches (i.e. nine sets as opposed to 5). It also works mainly in the 80-90% of 1RM range rather than 90% and above.

It is suggested that wave loading phases of training should only target 2-3 lifts per session and should only be carried out for 2-4 weeks at a time as the high amounts of neural stress and stimulation can result in neural fatigue (Dewar, n.d.). This author also suggests that there are two typical approaches to conventional wave loading. One for Peak Strength (i.e. someone looking to peak for a strength competition) and one for general strength and size. The peak strength session uses higher loads and lower reps than the general strength approach. Examples of both of these wave-loading approaches are detailed below:

Wave Loading Session Examples
PEAK STRENGTH SESSION PLAN	GENERAL STRENGTH SESSION PLAN
Example exercise: Bench Press Rest = 3-5 mins after each set Wave 1 3 reps @ 85% 1RM 2 reps @ 87% 1RM 1 rep @ 89% 1RM Wave 2 3 reps @ 87% 1RM 2 reps @ 89% 1RM 1 rep @ 91% 1RM Wave 3 3 reps @ 89% 1RM 2 reps @ 91% 1RM 1 rep @ 93% 1RM Note: in subsequent sessions, the starting weight of the first set should be at least 1-2% higher than the week before.	Example exercise: Deadlift Rest = 3-5 mins after each set Wave 1 5 reps @ 80% 1RM 4 reps @ 83% 1RM 3 reps @ 85% 1RM Wave 2 5 reps @ 83% 1RM 4 reps @ 85% 1RM 3 reps @ 87% 1RM As weeks progress – keep the format the same but gradually build weight by adding 1-2% load per week.

Wendler’s 5/3/1 method

This method was originally developed to target one muscle group per session. Each session revolved around one of the following primary lifts: Military Press, Deadlift, Bench Press and Squat.

Rather than an individual session approach, this method is designed as a programme in 4-week. Click each week to reveal Wendler’s 5/3/2 method.

Obviously, one lift completed for 3 sets of 3 reps won’t take very long. The rest of the session should programme for accessory exercises for the lift done, e.g. if bench press a selection of additional chest and tricep exercises could be programmed.

The programme starts with lighter loads for novices and progresses each week. It is suggested that eventually programming will be done off actual 1RMs for each lift with percentage loads calculated from the 90% of 1RM figure.

WORKOUT OVERVIEW
Experience	Advanced, Intermediate
Days per week	Four, Three
Equipment	Barbell, Bench Press, Squat Rack
Great for	Everyone, Powerlifter
Focus	Full Body

^{Table adapted from source: https://www.lift.net/workout-routines/wendler-5-3-1/}

The following table details a 4-week approach for someone starting their strength journey. Remember that % load figures are calculated from 90% 1RM figures. Rest increases within the 3-5 minute range as lifting load increases.

5/3/1 Cycle Example
	Week 1	Week 2	Week 3	Week 4
Set 1 Set 2 Set 3	65% load x 5 reps 75% load x 5 reps 85% load x 5+ reps	70% load x 3 reps 80% load x 3 reps 90% load x 3+ reps	75% load x 5 reps 85% load x 3 reps 95% load x 1+ reps	40% x 5 reps 50% x 5 reps 60% x 5 reps

You will notice that the final set of each week’s work reads with a “+“ after the rep count. During these sets, the client is encouraged to keep going for as many reps as possible (not absolute failure, but the goal should be a new rep record each workout).

5-4-3-2-1- ascending load method

The 5/4/3/2/1 method is the simplest of all max strength methods as it involves the progressive increase in load and decreases in repetitions from set to set, resulting in the final set being a true 1 rep max. Of course, this type of approach achieves less total volume than a 5 x 5 approach but may be a useful technique for looking to build towards a peak strength test or event, or for strength maintenance during training phases where other training components are the main focus (as intensity is maintained, but volume is low). This approach should be used once in a session per muscle group with accessory exercises to follow. Click on each of the following sets for an example of this approach for a squat exercise.

The 5-1 method

This is a contrast strength approach where repetitions and loads are adjusted every set to move between low repetition near maximum loads and moderate repetition loads. Typically, the loads will increase across the sets (similar to wave loading) but only 5-repetition and 1-repetition alternating sets are used. This method has little research associated with it, but appears to exploit the Post Activation Potential phenomenon (PAP) by using a set of 5 repetitions to potentiate a stronger single repetition in the next set. Click on each of the following sets for an example of this approach for a deadlift exercise.

Cluster sets

These sets were already discussed in the hypertrophy topic content, however, they are also a viable strength training approach. Cluster sets involve lifting a heavy weight for a number of repetitions while inserting short rests between repetitions in a set. Strength clusters usually involve single repetitions at close to maximal load interspersed by short rest periods. The most common cluster set approaches for strength improvement are:

The Poliquin Cluster method

Designed for Intermediate lifters, this cluster approach involves lifting a 3RM load 5 times in single repetitions with a 15-30 second rest between each repetition. Has shown benefits for both strength and hypertrophy.

• 5 Repetitions – done in single reps
• 15-30 seconds rest between reps
• 87-90% of 1RM
• 3-5 sets
• 3-4 minutes rest between sets.

Carl Miller Cluster method

Another method is designed for more advanced lifters. This is his pure strength method.

• 2-3 repetitions – done in single reps
• 45-60 seconds rest between reps
• 87-95% of 1RM
• 3-4 sets
• 2-3 minutes rest between sets.

3/7 method

Jaques et al (2021) developed this very new approach to strength training when they wanted to see how lifting a submaximal load for increasing repetitions affected strength compared to traditional constant heavy load approaches. The 3/7 methods are characterised by 5 sets of incremental number of repetitions using a submaximal constant load of 70% of 1RM. The first set is performed for 3 reps, with a rep added to each subsequent set (with the final set having 7 reps). Each set only has a brief rest period of 15 seconds. In their study, Jaques et al (2021) compared this method of lifting to a more traditional 4 sets of 6 repetitions at 80% 1RM programme with 2-3 minutes rest between sets. The results of the study found that the 3/7 method produced a significantly greater 1RM and maximal strength response after 12 weeks training, than the traditional method. In a subsequent study, the same authors doubled the sets of the traditional lifting approach to 8 sets of 6 reps. This did not improve the maximal strength response compared to the 3/7 method. Interestingly, the same authors then reversed the order of the 3/7 method (starting at 7 reps and working back to three like a drop-set) but found this was nowhere near as effective as starting the reps lower and building up. An example of the 3/7 method is detailed below.

The 3/7 method – Bench press

All sets are performed with 70% 1RM load. Click on each set to reveal the example f the 3/7 method for a bench press.

Repeat full process once more (2 sets total). As you can see, there are a number of different approaches you can use to add some variation to strength training blocks. It should be noted that the majority of these training approaches are designed for more advanced lifters (those with at least a year of resistance training behind them). Novice lifters should of course focus on technique, with higher repetitions and lower loads before being introduced to these approaches. Due to the high loads associated with strength training, it is important that a client’s technique is honed before loading to higher percentages of 1RM (to avoid injury). Clients who have more general goals encompassing strength and hypertrophy would likely benefit from a mixed approach to a resistance training session. In this instance, it is recommended that the heavier strength approaches are used early in a session, before moving to higher repetition and more moderate load lifting.

It should also be noted that the importance of a thorough warm-up is essential from both a safety and performance point of view. We’ve covered the RAMP warm-up protocols earlier, the potentiation sets are even more crucial with heavy strength training. At least 3 warm-up sets should be completed before the ‘working’ sets take place.

An example of warm-up sets could be:

This is also true for compound multi-joint exercises and isolation exercises, with compound lifts performed early in the workout. Many of the strength approaches you have been introduced to are quite low in volume and won’t fill an entire session. With newer lifters, this means you can target more muscle groups in one session. For more advanced lifters, the addition of accessory exercises after the strength component of the workout is recommended. These will likely work more in hypertrophy repetition and loading zones.

Strength training blocks can be quite monotonous. Traditional approaches also place the client at risk of reaching plateaus in training results. The approaches detailed above give you a means of adding variety into a client’s workouts, which increases neural activation and raises motivation to ensure they will continue with training. Every part of the workouts discussed above can be manipulated to better suit your client’s needs and of course, none of these should be used with a client if you haven’t experienced them yourself. With that in mind, it is time for you to try a few of these approaches out!

It is well known that strength gains elicited by high-load strength training involve both muscular and neural adaptations. A number of the muscular adaptations that we have already discussed in detail during the hypertrophy topic are also somewhat responsible for strength improvement. Put simple, the size principle states that the larger the muscle, the more force it can produce. Therefore, any adaptation caused by muscle hypertrophy training will have a concurrent effect on muscle strength. These key adaptations include:

• Hypertrophy of contractile elements (due to increase in sarcomeres).
• Increased satellite cell activity (leading to increased signalling for protein synthesis).
• Increases in anabolic hormonal secretions.

These key adaptations occur due to the same mechanisms of mechanical tension, metabolic stress and muscular damage. From a strength training vs hypertrophy point of view, the impact of traditional strength training approaches comes mainly in the form of high mechanical tension (through heavy loading), however, some of the strength variations we have discussed in this topic utilise short breaks between heavy repetitions to elicit greater metabolic stress also.

Muscular adaptations resulting from strength training

Cross-sectional area of muscle fibres is the single best predictor of strength (Bompa and Buzzichelli, n.d.). Strength training methods are thought to result in less muscle growth as they do not stimulate as much sarcoplasmic hypertrophy. This is because of the lower repetition loads and total volume associated with strength training approaches. Myofibular hypertrophy still occurs as the main mechanism behind this (mechanical tension) is still very high in strength training approaches. Training with heavy loads requires the use of all muscle fibres, however, the largest effects of strength training are seen in fast-twitch fibres. Fast twitch muscle fibres are larger and higher numbers of cross-bridges per sarcomere. However, fast twitch fibres have higher recruitment thresholds due to the principle of orderly recruitment, so it takes more stimulus to recruit them. This is where the neural adaptations that occur with heavy lifting come into play.

It is hard to fully separate strength and hypertrophy training adaptations as both elicit an increase in the cross-sectional area of muscle fibres but when the hypertrophy of fibres is taking out of the equation, it appears that the other key improvement that strength training leads to is an increase in “neuromuscular drive”, or the ability to call on a large quantity of motor-units within a muscle quickly.

Neuromuscular adaptations resulting from strength training

It is believed that up to 30% of all increases in muscle strength resulting from high-load strength training approaches is due to an increase in the level of ‘voluntary activation’ of muscle motor units, meaning an enhanced ability of the nervous system to recruit motor units within the trained muscle (Jaques et al, 2021). However, as time goes on, these neural adaptations begin to plateau meaning other mechanisms are needed to drive improvement.

The following image shows the adaptations that occur in muscle over time.

As the image shows, it is believed that the initial increase in strength exhibited by novice lifters is primarily the result of neural adaptations (i.e. the nervous system is better able to recruit motor units within muscle and do so more efficiently as the technique is honed). With prolonged strength training, myofibular hypertrophy increases and becomes responsible for most continued adaptations as neural adaptations begin to plateau. By the time a lifter reaches the elite level, improvements are small and require new stimuli to occur (Hughs, Ellefsen and Baar, 2018). This is often achieved through the introduction of new training approaches like the ones we discussed earlier in the topic

The image above helps us to understand how strength training adaptations occur over time. The largest improvements in strength occur in the first 12 weeks of a strength training programme as the neuromuscular system refines it ability to recruit motor units. Heavy lifting strength protocols cause the recruitment of higher threshold motor units (fast twitch fibres), leading to greater force production. The nervous system also improves the sequencing of motor unit recruitment (synchronisation) leading to more efficient force production. The net gain of these changes is a rapid increase in the ability to lift weight.

This neural adaptation in the early stages of strength training is most easily observed in studies that have focused on single limb strength protocols. In studies where the subjects trained only one limb, they found that the cross-sectional area of muscle fibres of the untrained limb did not increase, yet the strength of the untrained limb increased despite not being targeted in exercise. This clearly indicates that neural adaptation has occurred (systemically) leading to an increased ability to recruit motor units in muscles (even those you haven’t trained).

A meta-analysis conducted by Carroll et al (2006) suggested that strength improves up to 7.6% in the non-exercised limb (56% of the strength increase of the exercised limb) in training programmes lasting between 15 and 48 sessions. These authors proposed the key mechanisms behind this increase in strength included localised muscle adaptations (small changes likely due to increased hormonal secretions), cross-limb cortical interaction (i.e. both legs are connected to the same part of the brain that sends contraction signals) and changes to spinal cord excitability (where motor neuron signals originate from). To simplify, it is thought that there is some neural drive “spill-over” to the untrained limb.

Another adaptation that is observed with strength training is an increase in the rate of force development (RFD). RFD refers to the rate of force you produce at the start of a contraction (initial drive). RFD is linked closely to muscle fibre type and force transfer. Type II (fast twitch) fibres have greater RFD than slow twitch fibres. Regular heavy lifting increases FT fibre recruitment (higher threshold motor-units). An increase in FT motor units activated leads to higher RFD.

Force transfer relates to how the force developed in a muscle is transferred along the muscle and through the connective tissue to the bone (lever). Heavy weight-lifting causes changes to the extra-cellular proteins (mainly collagen) and stiffens the tendon attached to the bone to aid in force transfer. This means more of the force that is produced in the muscle is translated to the bone (and therefore the external resistance).

Neural adaptations from strength training

A number of additional neuromuscular adaptations are also though to contribute to strength gains. The following summary of these is adapted from Bompa and Buzzichelli (n.d.) who suggest neural adaptations from strength training can be broken into those that:

• disinhibit inhibitory mechanisms involved in maximal muscle contraction
• improve co-ordination of intra- and intermuscular action.

Adaptations leading to disinhibition of inhibitory mechanisms

Golgi-tendon Organs

These sensory receptors are found near the muscle-tendon junction. When a muscle/tendon is under high levels of load (stress), these receptors initiate a reflex inhibition of the muscle being worked. It is thought that regular heavy lifting de-sensitises these inhibitory receptors allowing the generation of greater force production.

Renshaw cells

Inhibitory neurons found in the spinal cord that slow down the rate of neural firing when a muscle is under high and constant tension. Strength training over time will reduce their sensitivity improving the firing rate of motor neurons to muscle under heavy loads.

Supra-spinal Inhibitory signals

These are inhibitory signals sent from the brain when a muscle is under high stress. A reduction in inhibitory signalling allows greater sustained force output.

Adaptations leading to improved co-ordination of intra- and intermuscular action

Synchronisation and Recruitment

This is the capacity to recruit motor units in greater amounts and with less delay. The number of motor units recruited, and the synchronisation of their firing is one of the key factors in maximal force production (strength). Regular and systematic strength training enhances both the number of motor units that can be recruited in a contraction and the speed at which they are recruited.

Rate coding

The rate at which neural impulses can fire a motor unit. If more motor units can fire at the beginning of the contraction, the more force can be developed in the early part of the lift (sticking phase). The more initial drive, the higher the likelihood of success. Regular strength training enhances rate coding due to the recruitment of higher threshold motor units (FT fibres).

The great news is that the majority of these neural adaptations can be achieved at less than maximal loads. Bompa and Buzzichelli (n.d.) suggest that research so far indicates that the majority of adaptations to the neuromuscular system necessary to increase maximum strength involve loads lower than 90% of 1RM. They also suggest exposure to loads of over 90% be used for short time periods to elicit a few of these neural adaptations. The table below shows how the neural adaptations we have discussed are enhanced by different load levels. While you can see that lower loads still elicit significant neural adaptation (mainly related to co-ordination of contraction), higher loads are necessary to improve motor unit recruitment and disinhibition of inhibitory factors.

See the following table that records the neural adaptations according to strength training zones.

Adaptions	Intensity zones (% of 1RM)
	6	5	4	3	2	1
	40-60	60-70	70-80	80-85	85-90	90-100
Intramuscular coordination: Synchronization Recruitment Rate coding	****	****	****	****	****	****
	**	***	****	****	****	****
	****	***	***	***	****	****
Intermuscular coordination	****	****	***	***	**	*
Disinhibition of inhibitory mechanisms	*	***	***	***	****	****
Specific hypertrophy	**	****	****	***	**	**

^{Adapted from source: https://us.humankinetics.com/blogs/excerpt/neuromuscular-adaptations-to-strength-training}
Adaptation stimulus:
very high= ****
high= ***
medium= ** 
low=  *
Note: All loads are supposed to be moved with the most explosive (and technically correct) concentric action that the load allows.

In summary, strength improvement appears to be a combination of hypertrophy and numerous neuromuscular adaptations. It would appear that traditional approaches to strength training involving multiple sets of lower repetitions with loads of 85% 1RM should still be the mainstay of strength training, but that regular periods of variation in approach should be used to avoid neural plateaus. The table above shows that neural activation can be achieved at lower lifting intensities, 70-90% of 1RM appears to give the greatest effect, however, short periods of time targeting higher loads of 90% of 1RM and over are necessary to block inhibitory mechanisms for maximal motor unit recruitment more effectively.

Strength differences between males and females

There is no question that males typically exhibit greater strength than females. The absolute total body strength of females is reported to be 67% that of males (Brzycki, n.d.). Differences between sexes in absolute strength vary according to the area that is being compared. A review of nine studies by Laubach (1976) suggested that females exhibited about 72% of the lower body strength of males, and only 56% of a male's upper body strength (cited in Brzycki, n.d.). Miller et al (1993) suggests this is due to females having a lower proportion of their lean tissue distributed in their upper body compared to their lower body.

So, in absolute terms, males are much stronger than females. However, males are also larger and heavier than females. It turns out that this accounts for the vast majority of the strength difference between males and females. Males and females exhibit different patterns of muscle and fat tissue disposition in the body. Females tend to have higher percentages of body fat than males. The average 18–22-year-old active female has around 22-26% body fat, with males of the same age 14-16% body fat (Brzycki, n.d.). Having a higher percentage of body fat corresponds with a lower percentage of muscle tissue.

This is easily shown in the following example:

An average college-aged male weighing 70 kg with a 14% body fat has approximately 10kg of body fat and about 60kg of functional tissue, including fluid weight. On the other hand, an average college-aged female who weighs 55kg and has 24% body fat has 13kg of fat and 44kg of functional tissue. In this example, the male has 15kg more body weight, but 44% more lean body mass than the female.

The fact is that strength is directly correlated with muscle size. Males have more volume of muscle per kg of body weight, however, when differences in lean body mass are considered, strength differences are almost negligible. Multiple studies have found that when you express strength in relation to muscle of a given cross-sectional area, there are no significant differences in strength between males and females. This means that although males usually have larger muscles than females, the force exerted by equal sized muscles is the same in both genders (Brzycki, n.d.).

Bartolomei et al (2021) agrees. These authors looked at comparisons between male and female athletic populations in regard to relative strength and found no significant differences in strength between sexes after adjusting for differences in lean body mass.

Another minor contributor to the difference in muscle mass between males and females and the observed greater potential for muscle growth in males may be explained by small differences in fibre type allocation between sexes. Jeon et al (2019) reports that females exhibit around 44% slow twitch fibres compared to males with 36%, suggesting the lean tissue of males contains more fast twitch muscle fibres. This would indicate that males not only have more muscle tissue, but that the make-up of their muscle tissue is better suited for maximal force production. Additionally, males lean tissue appears to contain greater glycolytic capacity, meaning they can store more fuel within muscle. When combined with the stored water molecules that muscle glycogen holds, this would in some way help explain the size difference in male vs female muscles (Bartolomei et al, 2021). These structural differences might also explain why females exhibit greater ability to withstand fatigue compared with males.

The great news is that females have the same ability to benefit from strength as males in that they gain just as much strength as males from strength training protocols, relative to the skeletal muscle mass and strength they started with.

Strength and Ageing

One of the most obvious effects of age from a physiological perspective is the involuntary loss of muscle mass, strength and function, known as sarcopenia. Muscle mass is thought to decrease approximately 3-8% per decade after the age of 30 and this rate of decline increases even more rapidly after the age of 60 (Volpi, Nazemi and Fujita, 2004). This decrease in muscle mass is often accompanied by an increase in fat mass. Combine this with bone density decreases, joint stiffness and associated inflammatory disorders and it doesn’t paint a pretty picture for the elderly.

Strength is a vital component of continuing quality of life in older populations. Maintaining some form of functional strength is critical to avoid falls and fractures, and for older people to maintain their independence for daily activities. The rate of sarcopenia is influenced by a few key factors including reduced hormone production, reduced physical activity and less than optimal nutrition. From a physiological perspective analysis of older muscle tissue reveals a reduction in muscle fibre and motor neuron numbers (especially fast twitch), reduced neuron firing rates, fewer satellite cells and reductions in cell support tissue like the sarcoplasmic reticulum (Volpi, Nazemi and Fujita, 2004). Combine this with a reduced basal level of protein synthesis and you have a perfect storm for muscle wasting.

Fortunately, muscle, regardless of age, has the ability to respond to anabolic stimuli and increase in mass and strength. Many studies have reported increases in muscle protein synthesis in older populations. Progressive resistance training has improved muscle hypertrophy and strength even in elderly and frail adults. It is well established that strength training is effective in older populations, the issue often faced however, is the difficulty in implementing resistance training approaches in this community group, who often suffer from health-related conditions and pain and may require specialised equipment and supervision.

The primary issue relating to elderly muscles is sarcopenia. This is why most strengthening programmes for older populations use hypertrophy loading schemes (8-12 reps at around 60-80% of 1RM). This is more than sufficient to place enough stress on the muscle, bone and connective tissue to elicit positive responses. Programmes should be written as they would be for novice younger clients, but a reduced 1RM should be expected. As clients progress and become comfortable with resistance training, it is safe to move them towards strength approaches with higher weight and fewer repetitions.

Measures of muscular strength are relatively simple, but not appropriate for everyone to perform. The most common assessment of muscular strength is a 1 repetition maximum lift, or 1RM, which involves measuring the greatest load that can be fully moved, by lifting, pushing or pulling, once without failure or injury. 1RMs are lift specific and should primarily be used for multi-joint compound exercises.

1RM measures should only be used on those who have significant experience with a progressively loaded strength programme. This allows the muscles, tendons and nervous system to acclimatise to shifting heavy loads without injury or loss of form. For less experienced clients, a multiple repetition estimated maximum assessment is recommended. This method involves performing a lift for multiple repetitions, ideally between 3 and 6, until there is loss of form. From this their trainers can use 1RM estimation tables to estimate the clients 1RM for the lift. Reaching accurate 1RM values for client lifts is essential for programming strength training sessions as programme intensity is written as a percentage of 1RM, e.g. 85% of 1RM.

According to Walker (2016) various 1RM tests have been shown to be a safe and reliable measure of strength in young children, age 6-12 years, adolescent athletes, 15-17 years, healthy trained and untrained adults, 18-36 years, untrained middle-aged individuals, 50-52 years, post-menopausal females, 54-60 years, patients with cardiovascular disease, and individuals aged 75+. As this form of testing is simple, time effective, inexpensive, and reliable, it is a very popular testing protocol. Even though 1RM testing has been shown to be safe and reliable, a trainer still needs to apply a duty of care when selecting this form of testing for certain populations. For example, while a 1RM back squat is a great test of lower body strength, it may not be the best choice for a 75-year-old new to exercise!

In the initial stages with a client new to resistance training, or a client with who you have reservations about perform maximal lifts with, it may be better to gauge strength improvements in other ways until their body has had an opportunity to adapt to heavy lifting. A simple way to do this is to have a client lift a nominal weight as many times as possible. This is a simple way to evaluate and re-evaluate early strength gains without putting the client at risk.

In research circles, the gold-standard for measuring muscular strength is isokinetic testing. This requires a specialised machine which resists a movement in two directions, e.g. flexion and extension of the knee. The machine senses the torque or force, created by the joint giving an absolute value for force. 1RM tests can also be conducted on these machines, but they tend to be isolated muscle group measures only, i.e. one joint movements. These machines are typically only found in university labs or rehabilitation centres, so most trainers rely on repetition max testing in the gym space for their assessments of strength.

Absolute strength can also be measured in an isometric sense. This is a measure of a client’s ability to push against an immovable resistance. An example of this is a mid-thigh pull using a force dynamometer.

There are also dynamometers that can measure everything from wrist to ankle strength. One of the most common tests using a dynamometer is for testing grip strength, a common entry requirement for armed forces and police. See the following image of a person using a hand dynamometer for a grip strength test.

There is some conjecture amongst academics that questions the accuracy of 1RM testing against more concrete measures of strength using dynamometers but given the cost and accessibility of these measurement devices, 1RM and multi-repetition maximum testing remain a trainer’s most obvious option for assessing improvements in strength. If a trainer follows best practice for sequencing and ensuring repeatability of testing conditions, 1RM and multi-repetition versions of this remain the most practical and appropriate measures of strength in a personal training setting.

Maximal strength results

Maximal strength results can be expressed in one of two ways:

1. Absolute strength
   This is simply the amount you lifted (e.g. 100kg).
2. Relative Strength
   A measure of the weight you lifted divided by your body weight.  As an example, someone who weighs 80kg and squats 120kg would have a relative squat score of 1.5 (i.e. 120/80 = 1.5 x bodyweight).

Ensuring repeatability of results

The key to ensuring repeatability of results is to standardise all aspects of the testing process. When it comes to 1RM lifts it is important to establish full repetition protocols for lift depth, grip and contact points. An appropriate warm-up that includes a few sets of progressively heavier lifts is important also to activate the neuromuscular system for the maximal lift attempts to come. Each lift has its own specific considerations. Read more about specific guidelines for common 1RM assessments including protocols for warm-up and completion of the test.

This general approach to 1RM testing from Walker (2016) is an appropriate approach for most 1RM tests:

1. The participant should perform a warm-up with a self-selected load that will allow them to complete a minimum of 6-10 repetitions (approx. 50 % predicted 1RM).
2. 2-3 minute rest
3. Participants then select a weight based on the previous effort which allows them to perform 3 repetitions (approx. 80% of predicted 1RM).
4. 2-3 minute rest
5. Participants now increase the load and begin attempting their 1RM. A series of single attempts should be completed until a 1RM is achieved.
6. Rest periods should be between 3-5 minutes between each single attempt and load increments typically range between 5-10 % for the upper-body, and 10-20 % for the lower-body exercises. 1RMs should be achieved within 3-7 attempts.
7. If multiple 1RM tests are being administered (e.g. back squat, bench press, and deadlift), then it is recommended that all test exercises should be separated by a 5-minute rest period.

Please note: It is essential that the test administrator follows the exact same testing procedure at every successive test throughout the training programme. This ensures that the previous testing data/information can be used and compared against future tests.

Common Measures of Muscular Strength

1 Repetition Maximum (1RM)

The most common form of measurement for maximal strength is 1RM testing. You can effectively test any muscle group, but the most common tests for which there is normative data to compare to are:

• 1RM Squat
• 1RM Deadlift
• 1RM Bench Press

Other commonly used measures include:

• 1RM Barbell Shoulder Press
• 1RM Lat Pull Down
• 1RM Seated Row
• 1RM Power Clean (advanced)

Other 1RM measures that have been adjudged by studies to be reliable measures include:

Lower Body	Upper Body
Leg press Leg adduction machine Calf raise Smith machine squat Leg extension Standing hip extension (cable) Stiff-leg deadlift Barbell lunge Leg curl (hamstring)	Machine chest press Low row Seated shoulder press Decline chest press Weighted pull-up Barbell bicep curl Triceps extension (overhead) Triceps press-down Weighted chin- up

Multiple Repetition Maximum – to predict 1RM

Best used when a client is new to lifting or has not yet honed the lifting technique. Same protocols as for 1RM lifts, however, a client lifts multiple repetitions (ideally under 5) and an estimation calculator is used to estimate 1RM.

Visit the following to view an example of one of these calculators:

ExRx.net : Predicting One-rep Max

Limb length and strength

Ever looked at people with short limbs and thought they make squatting and bench-pressing look easy? Similarly, when you watch a long-limbed person squat, does it almost look awkward at times? We are all different heights and shapes. Force production is reliant on leverage at joints. Leverage is somewhat dependent on bone length. Tall people have longer bones, short people have shorter bones...so how does limb length affect common strength lifts?

Long arms can make bench pressing and overhead pressing tougher

The reason for this is simple. The bar has further to travel than it does for those with short arms. This doesn’t mean long-armed people can’t be strong pressers, it just means there are mechanical shortcomings to overcome. Stability becomes more important for overhead pressing as the bar is moved further away from the core.

Long limbs make squatting more difficult

The longer your femur, the harder it is to keep your centre of mass over the midline of your feet (vertical bar path). To achieve parallel squat depth, you need to sit further back in the squat which often results in greater lean forward at the torso. Longer-limbed clients may need to counter this with a slightly wider stance.

Long legs or short arms make deadlifting more difficult

The bar needs to be gripped 23cm from the ground. Having long legs, or short arms, means you need to bend the knees deeper to achieve this. This can make it more difficult to keep the shins vertical, affecting the ability to move the bar vertically and thus force is diminished. It also increases torso lean forward which means the back will be more involved (and the glutes less involved) in the lift.

Research has not yet definitively proved that limb length is a strong predictor of squat/bench press performance. The difficulty is, that multiple other factors influence performance in these lifts including muscle size, training history and flexibility at key joints.

Check out the following video called, Squats Part 1: Foldability and Proportions, about how body proportions and flexibility affect a client's ability to squat with great form.

Right, time to apply what you have learned. Head to your assessment for an assessment guide video and instructions on submitting your assessments.

The assessment guide video explains your assessment task, which requires you to use the information you have learned on this topic to help a case study client.

This assessment will require you to apply the knowledge you have learned and practised by completing the following tasks:

• Design a Strength Training programme for an Athlete
• Justify your selection of programme variables (e.g. modality of training, exercise selection, sets, reps, rest etc.)
• Design a progressed programme for the end of the mesocycle
• Justify the changes you implement to the progressed programme
• Select a relevant fitness test to test this fitness component.