Basic Animal First Aid

First aid is only required in an emergency - a situation where there is an immediate risk to the life of an animal. The purpose of first aid in an emergency is to:

• to stabilise the animal (prevent death)
• protect the animal from further harm
• increase the likelihood of survival until veterinary intervention.

Levels of emergency

The following table summarises the four emergency levels with a few possible examples of incidents from each category. However, the severity of the emergency may change depending on the life stage of the animal, the species, the individual’s medical history and several other situational factors. The examples listed in this table are only a guide. If you are unsure of the level of emergency of a first aid situation, confirm with your supervisor.

Emergency Level	Description	Veterinary Care Required	Examples
Life-threatening emergency	The animal is at risk of dying or deteriorating significantly if it does not receive immediate attention.	Within 1-30 minutes	Swollen or distended abdomen, with or without vomiting Difficulty breathing Major blood loss or bleeding that will not stop Anaphylactic reaction Dystocia - very slow or difficult labour, i.e., labouring for more than two hours with no progression or a puppy/kitten/etc. is visibly stuck Trauma from being hit by a car or from a high fall
Intermediate emergency	The animal requires immediate attention but is not at risk of dying within the next 30 minutes.	Within 30 minutes – 2 hours	Toxin ingestion, e.g., mouse/rat/snail baits, chocolate (for dogs), over-the-counter or prescription medications, illegal drugs, or household cleaners Confirmed or suspected fracture Trouble walking Prolapsed eyeball Seizure or convulsion
Minor emergency	The animal has a low risk of dying but requires veterinary attention for full treatment.	Within 24 hours - preferably sooner rather than later	Small cuts Eye injuries Multiple vomits with pain and/or blood Repeated diarrhoea with pain and/or blood Constipation
Non-emergency	The animal can usually be treated with very basic first aid and is not at risk of dying.	May not need veterinary attention unless the animal’s condition deteriorates	Torn toenail/claw Skin/coat issues/hair loss One-off vomit/diarrhoea Anorexia (refusal to eat) Non-weight bearing, holding up limb

All other medical situations are considered health maintenance issues or preventative treatments as part of routine care for the animal. Routine care is planned and, therefore, does not require first aid.

DRABC

The acronym DRABC (pronounced ‘Doctor A, B, C’) is used to help remember the five key things to do in every emergency situation. DRABC stands for:

• D = Danger
• R = Response
• A = Airways
• B = Breathing
• C = Circulation.

Danger – secure the scene

When attending to an animal emergency, the first priority is to make sure that no one else becomes a casualty. So, before you gave provide first aid, you must first secure the scene. To secure the scene:

1. Assess the situation. Look for potential dangers to yourself, the injured animal, other people (including staff, clients or the general public) and other animals. Dangers may include, but are not limited to, factors such as road traffic, hazardous substances, the presence of aggressive or venomous animals, and slippery or unstable surfaces.
2. Where possible, control or remove the dangers, but make sure your actions do not put yourself or anyone else at further risk.

The specific hazards and risks will vary depending on the situation. If you are unsure the scene is appropriately secured, seek assistance or advice.

KEEP YOURSELF SAFE

Common risks to first aiders include:

• Bites, kicks or scratches from the animal needing first aid. In many situations, it may be safest for the first aiders to restrain the animal and/or to use a handmade muzzle, such as a towel, to prevent the animal from biting.
• Transmission of zoonotic disease. If possible, wear disposable gloves and remember your hand hygiene to protect both you and the patient from possible transmission of disease.
• Hazards from the immediate area. Be aware of your surroundings, especially if you are near traffic or other animals.

Response – check demeanour

The level of responsiveness may be an indication of the level of emergency. Assess the animal’s demeanour by observing the response to one or more of the following:

• Call the animal’s name (if known)
• Shake the animal (do not shake an animal if you suspect spinal or neck injuries)
• Shine a bright light on the eye to see if the pupil contracts
• Tap the medial canthus (inner corner) of the eye to see if the animal blinks
• Pinch between the toes to see if the animal reacts to pain.

The following table, adapted from MSD Veterinary Manual (n.d.), summarises the key interpretations for an assessment of responsiveness and demeanour.

FACTOR	ASSESSMENT	INTERPRETATION
Demeanour	BAR or QAR: Alert and responsive to surroundings	Indicates normal neurological (brain) activity.
	Depressed or obtunded: appears sleepy, but shows some response to visual and tactile (touch) stimuli	The reduction in normal responses can be mild (depressed), moderate or severe (obtunded). May be caused by illness or reduced blood flow around the body, especially to the extremities.
	Stupor: unable to be roused, but responds to painful stimuli	Indicates a severe neurologic (brain function) or metabolic (body function) impairment, including from exposure to a toxin or poison.
	Comatose: does not respond to any stimuli, including pain or Seizures: typically present as whole-body convulsions, excessive salivation, facial tremors, and/or involuntary urination and defecation	Indicates abnormal neurological activity, possibly: caused by a neurologic disease as a secondary symptom of metabolic impairment associated with diseases such as diabetes, liver disease or toxin exposure.

Airways – check and clear airways as required

Oxygen is critical for survival. If an animal can’t breathe effectively, it will likely die within a few minutes.

If at any point you are concerned the animal isn’t breathing well, for example, you can hear gasping or bubbling sounds as they breathe, check its airway to ensure there is no obstruction (something blocking the airway). If you see something you will need to remove the obstruction to clear the airway and allow the animal the best opportunity to breathe.

Only check the airway if it is safe to do so. There is a high risk of being bitten.

To check and clear the airway:

1. Position yourself on one side of the animal.
2. Place one hand across the top of the animal's muzzle and slide your thumb and index finger gently into the mouth, between the teeth.
3. As the top and bottom teeth separate, insert the pointer finger of your other hand between the front incisor teeth, and apply pressure to the bottom jaw and tongue to open the mouth fully.
4. Look inside the mouth and as far down the throat as you can.
5. If necessary, use a sweeping motion with your pointer and middle fingers across the tongue to remove excess saliva.
6. If you see an obstruction and can clearly see the entire object (in other words from start to finish), you can use your fingers or tweezers to remove the object carefully. When using tweezers, be extremely cautious to avoid injuring the mouth or throat. If the object is too far in or you cannot see how far down it goes, do not attempt to remove it. Removing obstructions like this may cause further injury or bleeding. Immediately take the animal to a vet.
7. If you have access, administer oxygen. This can be done by simply holding the oxygen tubing close to the animal’s face – fly-by O2. You can also use an oxygen face mask, hood or tent for a more direct delivery of oxygen.

Breathing – check breathing effort and respiratory rate

Even if the animal does not have an airway obstruction, assess its breathing and RR.

Assessing the animal’s breathing by listening to and watching the animal breathe. Ask yourself the following questions and take note of the answers.

• Is the animal breathing?
• Is breathing easy or laboured?
• Are the breaths deep, shallow or irregular?
• Can you hear choking, whistling, gasping, excessive coughing, wet noises or other strange sounds while the animal breathes?
• How breaths per minute does the animal take? Is the rate of breathing consistent or irregular?
• Is the way the animal is breathing deteriorating?

If an animal stops breathing, its body will be deprived of oxygen, and it is unlikely to survive. Brain damage from a lack of oxygen can occur as quickly as within 5 minutes. If an animal is not breathing but has a heartbeat, artificial respiration is a technique that may help the animal survive until it can receive proper medical treatment.

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION

The following steps explain how to perform artificial respiration:

1. Lay the animal on its right side.
2. Check and clear any obstructions in its airways (using the instructions supplied in the previous section).
3. Gently pull the tongue out of the mouth as far as it will comfortably go.
4. Cup your hands around the animal’s nose and muzzle, holding the mouth shut without damaging the tongue.
5. For small animals, completely cover the animal’s mouth and nose with your own mouth and gently blow into the nostrils and mouth until you see the chest rise.
6. For larger animals, hold the mouth closed to reduce the amount of air escaping. Then, cover the animal’s nose with your mouth and gently blow into the nostrils until you see the chest rise.
7. Only blow as hard and for as long as it takes to see the animal’s chest rise. Be as gentle as you can.
8. Give one breath every 3-5 seconds for the first minute. Then check to see if the animal has started to breathe on its own. Check to see if you can still find a pulse or heartbeat.
9. If the animal is still not breathing, continue to breathe for it every 6 seconds. Check every minute for a heartbeat and to see if the animal has started to breathe on its own.
10. Transport the animal to a vet immediately. If possible, have one person continue artificial respiration while a second person drives them to the vet (Vetwest n.d.c).

Circulation – check for a pulse

Check for a heartbeat and pulse. You may need to check several places on the animal depending on the equipment you have available. Check for a heartbeat and note the HR. Check for a pulse at the femoral artery or at the dorsal pedal and determine the pulse rate in bpm. Review the notes on checking a pulse in the previous topic if you need a reminder.

Ask yourself the following questions and note the answers:

• Can you find a heartbeat? Can you find a pulse?
• Does the HR match the pulse rate?
• Is the heat rate higher (tachycardic) or lower (bradycardic) than normal?
• Is the heartbeat steady or irregular (arrhythmic)?
• Is the HR getting faster or slower over time?

The following table, adapted from MSD Veterinary Manual (n.d.), summarises the key interpretations for an assessment of heart and pulse rates.

VITAL SIGN	ASSESSMENT	INTERPRETATION
Heart rate	Within normal range	At least one aspect of heart function is normal. However, this does not necessarily mean the animal is healthy. Complete your check of the vital signs and physical assessment.
	Bradycardia	The heart is not pumping blood as effectively as it should and blood flow around the body is decreased.
	Tachycardia	A fast heart rate may be caused by hypovolemia (reduced blood volume) resulting from serious blood loss, pain or heart disease.
Pulse rate	Strong and synchronous with each heartbeat	Normal - both femoral and dorsal pedal pulse should be felt.
	Irregular	Cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat) may indicate heart disease
	Bounding (abnormally strong)	Often results of hypovolemia – the heart contractions are abnormally strong to pump a smaller volume of blood around the body.
	Weak or absent	Decreased cardiac (heart) function and/or vasoconstriction of blood vessels in extremities (limb and tail) make it difficult to detect a pulse. May indicate a heart attack or thrombosis (large blot clot)

If you cannot detect a heartbeat or pulse anywhere on the body, it is likely the heart is not beating. If the heart is not beating, that means oxygen and nutrients are not circulating around the body and the animal will likely die within a few minutes.

If the animal does not have a heartbeat, perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).

CARDIAC MASSAGE AND CPR

Cardiac massage compresses the heart through the chest wall and keeps the blood pumping around the body. If the animal is not breathing, a second person can perform artificial respiration at the same time. If a second person is not available, prioritise cardiac massage.

The following steps describe how to perform cardiac massage on most pets. This process may not be appropriate for larger animals.

1. Lay the animal on its right side and extend their head and neck to be in a straight line with its body.
2. Slide one hand under the animal’s chest and position it under the heart.
3. Place your other hand on top of the animal’s chest over the animal’s heart. In other words, your two hands and the animal’s heart should be in a line.
4. Press down firmly with the heel of your top hand, squeezing the chest wall over the heart, simulating a heart contraction. For small animals, position the fingers of one hand under the animal’s chest. Wrap your hand around the chest and place your thumb over the heart on the other side of the chest. Compress the heart with just one hand.
5. Compress the chest wall at a rate that is ‘normal’ for the animal species you are working with. Only use just enough force to compress the chest by a third to a half.
6. Check for a heartbeat every minute.
7. Transport the animal to a vet immediately. If possible, have one person continue cardia compressions while a second person drives them to the vet (Vetwest n.d.b).

Other vital signs to assess

Checking airways, breathing and heart rate is always the priority in a first aid situation. If the animal is breathing and has a heartbeat, and it is safe to do so, check the MM and CRT as indications of their overall blood flow and oxygen levels.

For animals that do not require artificial respiration or cardiac massage, it is important to check their vital signs to gauge the severity of their illness or injury.

The following table, adapted from MSD Veterinary Manual (n.d.), outlines two additional health features to evaluate during a first aid incident.

FEATURE	EVALUATION	INTERPRETATION
Mucous membrane colour	Pink (Note: cats’ gums tend to be a paler pink than dogs’)	Normal
	Pale or white	The animal is likely experiencing anemia (significant blood loss) or shock
	Cyanotic (blue) or muddy (brownish or mottled)	Severe hypoxemia (the tissues are starved of oxygen) typically indicates respiratory distress, a heart condition or shock
	Jaundice (yellow)	Typically indicates hepatic (liver) disease/injury or hemolysis (excess damaged red blood cells)
Capillary refill time	1–2 seconds	Normal perfusion (circulation and blood flow)
	More than 2 seconds	Poor perfusion or peripheral vasoconstriction (tightening of blood vessels in extremities)
	Less than 1 second	Increased blood flow; could be associated with fever, heat stroke or shock
Level of pain	Vocalisation, changes in behaviour (avoidance, aggression), or physical changes (tachycardia, dilated pupils, etc.)	Clinical signs can be similar to those seen when animals are in shock. Pain delays healing and must be treated.

Every emergency is unique, and you will need to respond according to the specific needs of the animal. However, there are several common first aid situations including, but not limited to:

• Broken bones
• Wounds and bleeding
• Choking and airway obstructions
• Exposure to toxins and poisons
• Convulsions
• Eye injuries
• Hyperthermia and hypothermia

When assisting someone in providing first aid, it is critical that you listen actively to instructions and to use questioning to clarify and confirm. While you must act quickly, it is important not to rush. An emergency is not the time to make mistakes.

Broken bones

There are two main types of broken bones – closed fractures and open fractures.

A closed fracture, also called a simple fracture, occurs when a bone breaks but the skin remains intact. An open fracture, also called a compound fracture, occurs when the skin is broken over the break site. Broken skin increases the chance of the broken bone becoming infected.

For all types of limb breaks, including suspected closed fractures, immobile the limb to prevent further injury. You can use the following steps to immobilise the limb.

1. Firstly, do not pull on the limb. Do not try to straighten the limb or the broken bone. This will only cause pain and more injury.
2. Attend to any bleeding with open fractures.
3. Splint the limb using a firm object, such as a medical splint, a piece of wood, rolled up newspaper or stiff cardboard. Position the splint to prevent the animal from bending or moving the joint(s) nearest the injury and secure the splint to the limb with a bandage or strips of cloth (for example, a torn-up shirt).
4. Try to limit the animal’s movement and pressure on the limb. If possible, elevate the limb with a pillow, towel or suitable alternative.
5. When transporting the animal to a vet, provide additional padding to reduce any movement while in transit.

Where a broken bone is suspected or confirmed in areas such as the chest or pelvis, you will not be able to splint the injury. These types of fractures tend to be very painful for the animal, so be very gentle when moving them. Apply a dressing, if needed and love the animal using a sling, stretcher, spinal board or similar (Vetwest n.d.c).

Wounds and bleeding

If you see blood, check the animal for wounds. Where blood is oozing or only dripping slowly, such as from a graze or a scratch, clean the wound with saline or clean, tepid water and apply a sterile/clean dressing or bandage before taking the animal to the vet.

If you see blood steadily dripping or spurting, the animal is at risk of excess bleeding. Excessive blood loss is very dangerous for an animal because it means that its organs and tissues won’t receive enough oxygen or nutrients to function properly. An important step in first aid is to control the bleeding – slow or stop the bleeding.

To control the bleeding:

1. Appropriately restrain the animal.
2. Apply firm pressure to the wound for at least 3 minutes, using a clean towel, swab, dressing or bandage.
3. If the blood soaks through the first dressing, add another. Do not remove the first dressing in case it disturbs a clot that is forming and reopens the wound.
4. Keep the animal warm.
5. Secure the animal, ensuring it is adequately restrained and cannot tamper with the dressing or cause further injury to itself and transport it to a vet.

PENETRATING OBJECTS

If the animal has an object lodged in its flesh, such as a stick, do not remove the object. Instead:

1. If possible, reduce the size of the object by cutting it off 3-4 cm above the skin.
2. Restrict the animal’s movement and prevent them from pulling at the object in case they increase the injury.
3. Control the bleeding, but do not put any pressure on the object.
4. Keep the animal warm.
5. Get the animal to a vet as quickly as safely possible (Vetwest n.d.c).

Choking and airway obstructions

Choking is a life-threatening emergency. Transport the animal to a vet immediately.

During transport, if someone else is driving, and only if it is safe to do so, check the animal’s airways. If you see an obstruction and can clearly see the entire object (in other words, from start to finish), you can use your fingers to remove the object. If the object is too far in, you cannot see how far down it goes, or the animal is moving too much, do not attempt to remove it. Removing obstructions like this may cause further injury or bleeding. Do not use tweezers or other implements in case you cause further injury.

Exposure to toxins and poisons

Sometimes animals to eat something they shouldn’t. Different substances may be toxic to different species. For example, chocolate can be toxic for dogs while perfectly safe (and delicious!) for humans.

Common toxins and poisons that animals may eat include:

• Plants - for example, Azaleas and Rhododendrons are poisonous for cats (Coates 2022)
• Pest bait, such as snail bait, rat bait, etc.
• Cleaning products
• Drugs, including human or animal prescription medication, over-the-counter medications and illegal drugs
• Fertilisers and pesticides.

If you suspect an animal has been poisoned or has eaten something toxic, transport the animal to a vet immediately. Do not try to treat the animal in any way.

If known, record how much the animal ate and when. If possible, bring the product packaging or a sample of the plant or substance to the vet as well as the animal.

Convulsions

Convulsions are usually associated with a seizure. Convulsions are characterised by uncontrollable shaking and rapid, rhythmic contractions of the body muscles.

If you see an animal convulsing:

1. Clear the area around the animal so they do not accidentally injure themselves during the seizure. If it is safe to do so, place a rolled-up towel or cushion under the animal’s head to reduce the chance of injury from banging its head on the floor.
2. If possible, make the area quiet and dark.
3. Wait until the convulsions have stopped, record the length and number of the seizures, and then perform DRABC.
4. Take the animal to a vet.

Do not interfere with the animal in any way while they are convulsing:

• Do not place your fingers or any objects into the animal’s mouth.
• Do not attempt to give the animal food or water during the convulsions, or afterwards.

Eye injuries

The most common eye injuries in animals include:

• Corneal ulceration (inflammation of the outer layer of the eye)
• Prolapse (bulging of the eye, or proptosis if the eye slips out of the socket)
• Foreign bodies (grass seeds or other objects lodging in the eye).

Eye injuries tend to be very painful and may result in blindness if not treated quickly. If an incident has occurred to or near the eyes, monitor them carefully for signs of trauma that may develop after the incident. Signs of eye problems include:

• Redness
• Swelling
• Increase tear production
• Unusual discharge
• Squinting or holding the eye shut
• Cloudiness or blueness of the cornea
• Membrane (third eyelid) across the eye.

Transport the animal to a vet immediately. Do not put any medications in the animal’s eye unless advised by a vet. If the eye has prolapsed and it will take a while for a vet to attend to the animal, you can wrap a clean, damp cloth over the eye.

Hyperthermia and hypothermia

When an animal’s temperature is significantly above or below its normal range it can cause serious health problems and even death. The first aid for both hyperthermia and hypothermia is aimed at returning the animal to a normal temperature range.

ACTIVE COOLING FOR HYPERTHERMIA

Hyperthermia is particularly dangerous and can happen very quickly in small or very young animals. It is important to cool the animal slowly. Rapid cooling can cause blood vessels to constrict and reduce blood flow, which prevents the core from cooling. So, use tepid (room temperature) water and never use ice packs.

To slowly cool an animal, use one or more of the following techniques:

1. Wet the animal, focusing on the groin, armpits and neck using:
   • cool (not cold) running water
   • a wet towel or other material soaked in tepid water.
2. Wrap the animal in a wet towel/blanket
3. Cool the animal’s surroundings, including moving the animal into a cooler area, into the shade, turning on air conditioning or wetting the ground around the animal.

During cooling, monitor the animal’s temperature frequently (every 5 minutes). When they reach the normal range, dry the animal to prevent them from cooling too much and take them to a vet.

ACTIVE WARMING FOR HYPOTHERMIA

Hypothermia slows the body’s metabolic activities, which can cause serious health problems. It is important to warm an animal slowly to avoid overheating it. To warm an animal, use one or more of the following techniques:

1. Dry the animal if it is wet.
2. Wrap the animal in dry blankets, towels or other materials.
3. Place the animal on a heat pack or heating pad, making sure the item is not too hot. You should be able to handle it comfortably with your bare hands. If the animal cannot move on their own, move them regularly to prevent burns. If the animal is mobile, provide them space to move off the heat pad of their own accord.
4. If you have access to one, use a Bair Hugger blanket and set the temperature to be appropriate to the species (Coates 2021).

As with active cooling, monitor the animal’s temperature every 5 minutes to make sure you don’t overheat them and stop active warming once the animal reaches a temperature that is normal for that species.

Summary

In this module the important skills we covered can be summarised by DRABC:

• Danger – always check for your own safety before attending to the animal that needs your help.
• Response – identify if the animal is conscious or unconscious.
• Airways – is the animal’s airway clear?
• Breathing – is the animal breathing?
• Circulation – can you feel a pulse rate?

In extreme cases a cardiac massage or CPR may be required.

The final part of the topic covered what to do in the most common types of emergency. The key takeaway is that basic first aid skills can keep an animal alive until a vet is able to take over. In the next topic we look at what care animals need once the emergency is over and the animal has been stabilised.

Activity

There’s a lot of information to remember about animal first aid, especially what steps or order to follow. Take a moment to check how much you have learned by completing the following multiple choice activities.