Periodisation of Cardiovascular Training

This topic will focus on periodisation of cardiovascular training modalities. Discussions in this topic will focus on an annual periodised training plan (1 year).

We will cover periodisation of cardiovascular training from two different perspectives. These are:

1. Cardiovascular conditioning for endurance athletes.
2. Cardiovascular conditioning for team sport athletes.

It is necessary to discuss each of these separately due to their diverse application of cardiovascular training methods across the training calendar. For example, the approach for aerobic endurance athletes, who aim to cover long distances in a single sustained effort as quickly as possible, greatly differs from that of team sport athletes. The latter group emphasises repeated, high-intensity, shorter-duration efforts over an extended period of time.

This means that while some of the components of fitness targeted may be similar between these two approaches, the placement and duration of focus given to cardiovascular training modality in the annual plan will be quite different.

This topic will address each of these periodised programme approaches separately.

The overall structural components of a periodised plan remain the same as they were when applying it to resistance training. Let’s take a quick recap of the periodisation process before diving into periodisation for cardiovascular training methods.

Periodisation is defined as the planned manipulation of training variables (exercise mode, volume, intensity, etc.) in order to maximise training adaptations, peak for important competitions, and prevent over-training (Lorenz & Morrison, 2015). Periodisation is most relevant for higher-level athletes who are trying to plan their training schedule around important competitions to be at peak performance level for important competitions or the end of the competitive season.

The goal of a periodised plan is to manage and coordinate all aspects of training to bring an athlete to peak performance at the most important part of the competitive season or to manage a high level of performance across a long season. The process of breaking a year-long training plan into more manageable segments simplifies the focus of each phase of training for both athlete and trainer. It also recognises the fact that an athlete cannot remain in a state of peak condition all the time!

Scope of periodisation

Essentially, any variable in a training programme can be periodised. Most commonly, cardiovascular periodisation manipulates the following variables:

• Training mode used and exercise choice.
• Volume & intensity of exercise via manipulation of:
  • Duration of exercise
  • Frequency of exercise
  • Terraine of exercise (e.g. incline, off-road etc)
  • Resistance levels (e.g. gears on bikes, resistance levels on rowing ergometers etc)
  • Repetitions of efforts (mostly related to intervals training)
  • Rest periods.
• Movement speed and effort.

Periodised plans vary in length depending on the training goal. Most commonly a periodised training plan reflects a calendar year, although some athletes, might work on a plan of up to 4 years in duration (for example those targeting the Olympics). Some questions to ask yourself when getting ready to prepare a periodised plan for an athlete are:

• What is the sport? Is it seasonal (like football, basketball etc), tournament-focused (like golf and tennis), or peaking-focused (like track and field, marathon or swimming)?
• If a seasonal sport – when does the season start and finish?
• If a tournament or peaking sport – what are the dates of the important competitions?

The first step in developing a periodised plan is to determine where in the calendar the athlete needs to be in peak condition. This could be a particular phase of the season (e.g. playoffs, finals, end-of-year tour etc), or it may be a specific competition or event (e.g. Regionals/National championship or World Cup).

Once you have the key days and timelines you can work backwards from this identified point to where training for the sport begins. This will allow you to work out the time you have to allocate to each training phase. Depending on the sport/athlete the performance calendar could have a singular peak focus, or multiple peaks required at different points across the year (this is more common with individual event athletes).

Periodisation works by manipulating the intensity and volume of training throughout the training year so that peak performance state is reached during the competition events of primary importance. As a rule of thumb, volume of training is highest in preparatory phases of training and reduces as you enter competitive phases. Intensity builds steadily using the principle of progressive overload across preparatory phases and is kept high in competitive phases to ensure training gains are maintained (principle of maintenance). In multi-peak training approaches, preparatory and competitive stages may be cycled in shorter blocks throughout the training calendar.

Once you have the key dates in place and have identified when the training will begin, it is time to divide the training year up into training periods. The focus of each training block will be dependent on the physical qualities that are important for performance in the sport (e.g. strength, aerobic endurance, speed and agility etc). Once you have identified these training focuses and know what time frames you have to devote to training them, it is much easier to make monthly, weekly and individual session plans.

The structure of a periodised programme will vary significantly for different athletes as the demands of sports are wide and varied. The periodisation approach is also highly dependent on the training age of the athlete and the level that they compete at.

Macrocycles

A periodised plan starts with a macrocycle, which can be approached differently based on the sport. In team sports, a macrocycle typically encompasses a training year, aligned with the annual calendar. Endurance athletes might adapt this concept if they're engaged in a competitive season. Alternatively, event-focused athletes might see a macrocycle as the span dedicated to preparing for and recuperating from a significant race, such as a marathon, before commencing the cycle anew for the next event.

The structure of the periodized plan naturally hinges on the specific sport, event, and configuration of the competitive season. For example, an elite marathon runner may target the six major marathons in the annual calendar. These are known as the World Marathon Majors and include:

• The Tokyo Marathon – run on the first Sunday in March.
• The London Marathon – run in the middle of April.
• The Boston Marathon – run about a week after the London Marathon.
• The Berlin Marathon – run towards the end of September.
• The Chicago Marathon – run in early October.
• The New York City Marathon – run in early November.

If an athlete was targeting each of these events, then they would have to build, peak, taper and recover twice throughout the training year. This elite marathoner would therefore follow a two-peak periodised annual plan (essentially two macrocycles that is known as a bi-cycle). The following table is an example of macrocycles for a sport with two major competitive periods:

Macrocycle 1						Macrocycle 2
Dec	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	June	July	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov
			TOKYO	LONDON & BOSTON					BERLIN	CHICAGO	NEW YORK

This approach would be similar to a rower or track runner in NZ. The competitive rowing and athletic seasons run from August/October until Feb/March. While there are many local events that athletes can compete in, there are usually 2 or three events that have particular significance that athletes would want to peak for. Once these key dates are known, a tailored multi-peak approach can be made for athletes. For example, a rower from Christchurch would want to be in peak form for the Mainland Interprovincial Championships in late September, the Canterbury championships at the start of January and again for the NZ Rowing Championships in mid-February. This schedule would lend itself to a 2 peak approach also (one for the September regatta and another to build towards the January/February regattas).

The cardiovascular periodised plan for a team sport athlete like a (football player) would look a little different, with the majority of cardiovascular conditioning achieved prior to the beginning of the competitive season. An attempt to improve match conditioning would be achieved through games and weekly field-based training with the aim of being at peak condition for the 2nd half of the season (for playoffs and finals).

This means the periodised annual plan for field sport athletes like a footballer would look a little more like the following example. This example is of a sport with an annual macrocycle (1)

Macrocycle
Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	June	July	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
			SEASON BEGINS					SEASON ENDS

Regardless of how the term is applied, a macrocycle is then broken up into training phases. The following table outlines the breakdown of a macrocycle into the training phases that are commonly included.

The General Preparation Phase	Where the focus is on general conditioning. From a broad cardiovascular perspective, this is where athletes will typically get some kilometres under their belt using long slow distance (LSD) and lactate threshold type training approaches.
The Specific Preparation Phase	This is where the athletes begin to tailor their training to the sport they compete in. This may mean focusing on race durations and lengths for endurance athletes, or usual running speeds and distances achieved in game play for team sports.
The Pre-competition Phase	This phase is usually only used in sports where there are pre-season fixtures (unrelated to the main competition)
The Competition Phase	This is the period where the athletes are actively competing in competitive fixtures or events that they have placed importance on. Most commonly, this phase will focus on the maintenance of preparatory fitness gains and a shift in focus to technical and tactical skill development for team sports but may be a phase used for continual improvement for endurance athletes.
The Transition/Off-season Phase	The Off-season. This does not always translate to “no-training” but will often include reduced volume and intensity basic training approaches.

There are also some slight differences in terminology and training phases when it comes to endurance athletes building towards a big race. For example, you will often see a stand-alone “taper” phase incorporated across an endurance athlete's periodised plan. A little research into periodisation for these athletes will also uncover secondary terms for traditional training phase names such as general preparation being referred to as “base” training, specific preparation being termed “build” training, competition known as “race” and transition referred to as “rest and recovery”.

To illustrate the difference between how these training phases (and terms) might be applied to an endurance athlete vs. a sporting athlete, we can use the same examples of the marathon runner and football player we have already introduced above.

The marathon runner, with their two-peak approach, would build an aerobic base, build on this to a peak condition, and final taper twice during the calendar year. After the final Marathon of the year in November, they would likely have a transition phase of a few weeks to rest and recover. They would then begin base training in December with some long slow distance runs. The period from December through to March (the first marathon of the year) is one of two large preparation windows in the year along with another break between the Boston Marathon in late April until the Berlin Marathon at the end of September. This would allow for a second transition recovery period followed by another base, build, and peak/taper process. In the two competitive phases (March to April) and (Late September to November), the focus would shift to recovery from races and maintenance of conditions between marathons.

Example of how training phases might be applied for a Marathon running targeting the big 6 world marathons:

Macrocycle 1						Macrocycle 2
Dec	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	June	July	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov
			TOKYO	LONDON & BOSTON					BERLIN	CHICAGO	NEW YORK
BASE	BUILD	PEAK/TAPER	COMP	COMP	TRAIN	BASE	BUILD	PEAK/TAPER	COMP	COMP	COMP/TRAIN

In contrast to this, the football player would likely start some general aerobic conditioning training in November (after a few weeks of rest and recovery from the end of the previous season). This general conditioning would gradually increase in volume through December and into January. Teams will likely assemble (officially) in the New Year for field-based training, where more sport-specific forms of cardio will be completed (to mimic the requirements in a game). The volume of running will start to reduce and intensity increase (as much of the training in February and March will revolve around skill development and tactical approaches). Aerobic conditioning from this point forward will likely be achieved through interval running style drills and game simulation drills.

Macrocycle 1					Macrocycle 2
Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	June	July	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec
			SEASON BEGINS					SEASON ENDS
GEN PREP	SPEC PREP	SPEC PREP	COMP	COMP	COMP	COMP	COMP	COMP	TRANS	TRANS/GEN PREP	GEN PREP

Reminder: The duration of each training phase will always be dependent on the length of the competitive season and when the athlete/team wants to begin their preparatory training.

Mesocycles

Once the training phases, and their durations, have been established, they can then be broken up into shorter blocks of training known as mesocycles. Mesocycles are usually 4-6-week training blocks that have a specific training purpose allocated to them. Often multiple training purposes in team sport athletes. Mesocycles give trainers the ability to focus on specific training aspects in a systematic fashion and help to ensure there are not too many training focuses being targeted at once.

Once mesocycles have been established, a trainer can then programme the micro-cycles. These are essentially training weeks made up of individual training sessions that combine to achieve the training goal of the mesocycle.

Periodisation for endurance vs. team sports

The periodisation of cardiovascular training for endurance athletes is somewhat simpler than for athletes involved in intermittent sports. This is because sports athletes often have to train multiple components of fitness at once. For example, a mix of resistance, technical, tactical and cardiovascular training modalities. These are all given focus at particular points of the year as you cannot train everything at once. The typical approach for sporting athletes is to build a general aerobic and strength base in the early preparatory phases, then start to make training aligned with the durations and intensities of efforts needed for performance on the field as the competitive season approaches. In season, training typically starts to focus less on conditioning (although some higher intensity approaches are used to maintain fitness gains) and more on the performance skill required for positional play along with tactical game-play scenario work.

In contrast to this, endurance athletes have relatively singular training focuses (i.e. run, swim, row the distance faster). While they have a competitive season, there are usually gaps between significant events allowing them to use multiple cardio training approaches throughout the annual plan.

Traditional periodised endurance training approaches follow a pyramid-like structure, where the majority of training is done at lower intensities throughout the training year (up to 80% of training), with smaller periods of focus given to higher intensity modalities (like speed work). The image below from the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) shows the importance placed on the different modes of cardio training for a typical endurance athlete across the training calendar. The bottom two layers of the training pyramid represent lower-intensity base training like LSD work. As the intensity of training increases, the volume of training allocated to it decreases (with the top of the pyramid representing training modes like interval training). As mentioned above, endurance athletes will likely use a mix of these cardio training approaches across the training year.

Team sport athletes have limited time to apply a singular focus to cardiovascular base training. Club level athletes have relatively short preparatory periods so often try to continue to improve cardio condition in the early part of the season (on the training field and even in games). Elite team sport athletes often have to take the same approach as the competitive seasons can be up to 35+ weeks of the year in some sports and athletes require some rest and recovery at the end of this which means the window for cardiovascular base training is short. This means team sport conditioning coaches tend to favour higher intensity intermittent type cardio approaches over the longer duration base work as this training approach has more direct relevance to the sport the athletes play. It should also be noted that once scheduled team practices are scheduled much of this cardio conditioning is completed as team on the field/court of play through running based drills and game-play simulation tasks (rather than traditional aerobic training approaches like continuous LSD or tempo running). That said, if a team sport athlete had a significant break between seasons, they could definitely benefit from traditional cardio approaches like LSD, tempo and fartlek training. The reality is much of this base work would need to be done in the athlete’s off-season (or very early general preparation phase) before the team assembles.

It is important to note that the term ‘endurance athlete’ also has broad applications. Most people on hearing this term will think of longer event athletes like marathon runners, road cyclists, and triathletes, but aerobic endurance athletes are also those who engage in shorter duration/distance events like middle distance runners (400m-5km), track cyclists, and rowers to name a few.

While the periodisation approaches of these athletes will be largely the same as those used by longer-distance athletes, the time spent targeting each component of fitness may be significantly altered. We will be addressing these key differences.

Types of periodisation used by endurance athletes

According to NSCA endurance athletes typically use two types of periodisation are commonly used. These are traditional and inverse approaches. Both periodisation approaches can be implemented using a standard or reverse method.

The most common approach is the traditional periodisation approach where the athlete progresses through the typical cycles of preparatory (base), pre-competition (build or intensity), competition (race), and transition (rest and recovery). For athletes who compete in events, a short tapering phase is generally used before competition. For an endurance athlete the general rule of thumb when it comes to the taper is that the longer the event (e.g. an ultra-marathon) the longer the taper.

A less common approach used by more experienced athletes is the inverse periodisation approach which sees training begin with an emphasis on strength and technique, then speed and strength. The athlete then moves through an aerobic power and running economy phase, before targeting aerobic capacity as the competitive season approaches. NSCA recommends this approach be reserved for higher-level athletes who maintain a well-established base level of condition. For the purpose of helping the ease at which you absorb this information, let’s focus on the traditional periodisation approach.

The traditional periodisation approach for endurance athletes

The traditional approach to periodisation follows the same pattern of implementation as you would for resistance training. Athletes progress through the different training phases using a standard manipulating volume and intensity of training. The general preparation (or base) phase is where volume (distance covered) generally peaks with gradually increasing distances applied in training at relatively low intensities. As preparation moves to become more specific to the event (race), volume gradually decreases with a concurrent increase in intensity of trainings. Having said that, the majority of training will still be performed at lower intensities. The most common mesocycle approach used by novice and intermediate athletes (with less than 7 years of training behind them) is the 3-week build, one-week de-load approach.

An image from the NSCA depicting this approach is provided below. Using this strategy, the athlete is able to slowly build volume (or intensity) over 3 weeks then allows for super-compensation in the 4th week as the volume is reduced. Over the weeks volume, or intensity, progressively creeps up-usually applying the 10% rule.

The following image illustrates traditional periodisation using a standard method of progression.

The “reverse” periodisation approach for endurance athletes

Another periodisation approach employed by more experienced endurance athletes is the “reverse“ method. This approach begins with a higher load and gradually decreases through the cycle (as shown in the image below). Seven or more years of experience in endurance training is typically suggested to be able to handle this type of progression. This is because the training load is highest in the first week of training, which makes this strategy more demanding, so the approach should only be used by advanced athletes. This method can provide great benefits because the athlete engages in the highest training load after a recovery week, so the body is more rested. The athlete can more easily attain a higher volume and intensity of training because the accumulated fatigue is not as great as it is when using the standard method of progression (NSCA). The following image is an example of traditional periodisation using a reverse method of progression.

Integrating cardio training approaches in endurance periodisation

Now that you have your annual plan organised in terms of macrocycles, training phases and mesocycles. It’s time to take a look at how the key cardio training approaches are manipulated in an endurance athlete's plan. The three main cardio training approaches typically used by endurance athletes are described in the following table.

1. Long Slow Distance Training	This is training done at lower intensities but for longer durations. It is an important tool in improving VO2 Max and movement economy.
2. Lactate Threshold Training	This type of training is designed to increase an athlete’s lactate threshold meaning they can maintain a faster pace without succumbing to fatigue. This training involves training just below the point at which fatigue sets in, or by doing sessions that take you above and below this threshold during a continuous effort. Common examples of lactate threshold training approaches include Tempo and Fartlek training sessions.
3. Interval Training	This type of training can be done by targeting either or both of the aerobic or anaerobic energy systems. For longer-distance endurance athletes, it would be more common to use aerobic intervals, whereas shorter-distance athletes may use a combination of aerobic and high-intensity (anaerobic) interval training. Working at these higher speeds can increase lactate threshold and is also thought to improve movement economy.

Let’s now look at how each of these training modalities is typically used by endurance athletes. Please note: this information is a generic approach that will suit most endurance athletes and that further research will be needed to confirm that the process is suitable for a given sport/athlete.

Once an endurance athlete has identified a race or group of races they want to compete in, they can plan their training phases to peak for the race. As we have already discussed the general training phase approach includes:

• The base phase (general preparation mesocycles).
• The build phase (later part of the general preparation phase, start of specific preparation phase).
• Pre-competition (peak) phase.
• Taper.
• Competition.
• Transition.

The base phase (general preparation mesocycles)

This is where the athlete progressively builds their endurance through the completion of Longer Slower Distance (LSD) Training. This phase should see a gradual increase in the volume of training with the aim of improving the athletes’ aerobic engine (VO2 Max) and movement economy. During this phase, most sessions will involve a steady state effort at between 65-75% of heart rate maximum (note this could be higher or lower depending on the level of conditioning but must be slower than race pace). This type of training should be considered a comfortable pace to maintain.

Progressive overload can be applied during this phase by adding duration or distance to training sessions or adding to the frequency of sessions. Athletes will generally train using the mode of cardio they will compete in (i.e. runners run, cyclists' cycle), however, there is scope for other cardio modes to be used to add variety in the early part of this phase. For those endurance athletes involved in shorter distance events, this phase will likely see them complete distances longer than their race distances, for example, a 10km runner may run longer runs of 14-16km (at speeds less than race pace of course).

Depending on the length of time an athlete has to devote to race preparation, the base phase could be up to 12+-weeks duration (Tatsuno, 2021) with training volume peaking at the end of this phase. It is also important to note that even in this phase of training, an athlete will often not be exclusively performing LSD training. While the vast majority of training will be in the LSD zone, small amounts of time will also be given to shorter faster training (usually in the form of tempo, fartlek or aerobic interval training sessions).

NSCA suggests the following attribution of cardio training modes in each of the training phases. Note: “Preparatory” refers to the base and build phases and “pre-competition” to the peak phase. Aerobic LSD training is represented by “over-distance and endurance” training modes. “Tempo” indicates tempo and Fartlek training and “Lactate threshold” and “VO2 Max” relate to higher intensity interval training. You can see that in the preparatory (base) phase, over 90% of the training will be LSD-style training. The 2nd and 3rd columns of the table also show how training volume and intensity are manipulated across the different training phases. You will note that the volume suggested for the base phase ranges from moderate to high, while the intensity of training is mainly low. While the distribution of training doesn’t appear to change a lot throughout the training phases, in the following table, it is the manipulation of volume and intensity, along with frequency of training that allows for progressive overload to occur.

Distribution of training load for each method of cardio training

Cycle	Volume	Intensity	Over distance	Endurance	Tempo	Lactate threshold	VO2 max
Preparatory	Mod-to-high	Low	60%	30%	5%	5%	0%
Precompetition	Mod	Mod-to-high	55%	25%	5-10%	10-15%	0-10%
Taper	Low-to-mod	Mod-to-high	55%	25%	5-10%	10-15%	2-5%
Competition	Low-to-mod	HIgh	55%	20%	5-10%	5-10%	0-5%
Transition	Low	Low	85%	5-10%	0-5%	0%	0%

Image source: https://us.humankinetics.com/blogs/excerpt/how-periodization-is-used-by-endurance-athletes

The build phase (later part of the general preparation phase, start of specific preparation phase)

This phase of training sees a continuation of mainly LSD sessions with the aim of building aerobic capacity. Duration of sessions should have hit their peak in the base phase, so progressive overload is introduced by manipulating the intensity of training. This can involve adding some undulation to training routes (e.g. hills), changing the training surface (i.e. beach run instead of road run), or by inserting short periods of higher intensity work in amongst lower intensity recovery efforts. As this phase goes on, the intensity of training will slowly increase. The training week will also include at least one tempo session (completed just below the lactate threshold) or a longer interval session. As the intensity of sessions increases the duration of these sessions will decrease. However, note from the table above that 80% of training volume will still be devoted to workouts completed at less than the lactate threshold. This training phase will typically be shorter than the base phase with Tatsuno (2021) suggesting an ideal timeframe of around 6-8 weeks duration. The build phase is designed to maintain your aerobic base while lifting your lactate threshold and increasing your aerobic power.

Pre-competition (peak) phase

This is the final phase of training leading up to the competition. This is usually a shorter phase of a couple of weeks only (Tatsuno, 2021). The goal of this phase is to reduce training volume even further but keep intensity high. While there will still be LSD sessions in every micro-cycle, these will be reduced and thought of more as recovery runs. Sessions will become shorter, and more sessions will be performed near, or at the race pace. Some sessions (like longer repeat intervals) will be performed at the above race pace (pushing all the way to VO2 Max at times). Speed is the main focus of this phase, but these types of sessions also help lift your lactate threshold and further improve movement economy.

Taper

A taper is the process of de-loading in the time directly leading up to a race/event. Tapering refers to a decrease in training volume the week or two prior to major athletic competitions. Though it may seem counter-productive to slow down training before a big event, research shows that this actually improves performance. Murach and Bagley (2015) suggest that nearly every well-controlled study to date on the topic of taper has shown some degree of performance enhancement (as long as training volume is reduced appropriately, and intensity is maintained in remaining sessions). Note, that often the taper will be included in the pre-competition phase.

Effective tapering strategies include gradually reducing training volume by 40–70% and reducing training frequency by 20%. Intensity can be maintained by the inclusion of shorter, high-intensity interval training sessions during the tapering phase (Quinn, 2020).

There is some conjecture around the length of taper endurance athletes should apply, but the vast majority of literature supports the use of a taper in the lead-up to key events. Tatsuno (2021) suggests athletes should begin a taper within 7-14 days of their race but indicates that some studies have suggested shorter tapers of between 3-7 days might be more beneficial for allowing for recovery while also maintaining peak condition.

Quinn (2020) suggests that a 1-week taper is sufficient for races/events lasting one hour or less, whereas a 2-week taper is recommended for events lasting longer than an hour.

Competition

In some cases, the major event is completed, and the training plan ends (for that macrocycle), but most often athletes prepare for a series of competitive events over a given competitive period.

Quinn (2020) suggests that following a quality periodised programme and final taper, most athletes will find that their fitness is maximised for a period of between 1 and 4 weeks (depending on how they spend that time). Often called “in-season” training, the main goal of this phase is to maintain your fitness gains through the competition period, while still allowing for adequate rest and recovery from maximal effort racing. Quinn (2020) also suggests that because you are competing during this phase, it is still possible to make minor fitness improvements. In some instances (like our marathon runner) discussed above, there may be a few weeks between key events. Depending on the length of this gap, an athlete may be required to complete a mini-build, peak and taper before the next event. This should be done by keeping the volume of training lower and maintaining a higher intensity of training.

Transition

After a race or event, an athlete requires a certain amount of rest and recovery. Research has yet to determine what the ideal recovery time looks like for this transition phase. However, the benefits of a transition phase are clear including improved sleep, mood, and repair of exercise-related micro-damage and injury. If the event is the last for the macrocycle, then this will likely be an extended de-load period of up to a month or more. Even the best elite athletes in the world take a minimum of 2-4 weeks off training following the completion of a series of races.

The amount of time spent in the transition phase also depends on the structure of your competitive season (how long you have before the next event) and how well-conditioned you are overall (with better-conditioned athletes needing less recovery time). In longer (off-season) transition phases athletes may choose to give their sport-specific muscles a break while maintaining some form of the condition through the use of cross-training methods. This may involve performing low-intensity workouts using a different cardio modality (e.g. a runner getting on a bike, or in the pool).

Sample annual periodisation plan for distance runners

The following segment will take you through the process of developing a periodised annual plan for a runner. This particular example has been put together for a runner who has 2 important (and quite different events they wish to peak for in their training calendar. The first event is the Boston Half Marathon in May, and the 2nd event is a 5km road race at the end of November. This information has come from certified running coach Piedade (2019) who explains how he goes about putting this athlete’s annual plan together. Note, being an American publication, there are some slight differences in the terminology used. These are explained as they arise.

Step 1: Identifying the events you wish to peak for

In this example, a runner wants to peak twice in the training calendar. The trainer starts by entering these dates into the annual plan.

Step 2: Pre-competition and recovery

He then works backwards from these dates. This starts by adding the “pre-competition” and post-race recovery (transition phases). The pre-competition phases will include a 2-week taper before the half-marathon and a 1-week taper before the 5km race.

Once you have blocked out the key races, the pre-competition periods and the recovery or transition periods, you are ready to lock in your macrocycles and then allocate training mesocycles. This particular plan will have two macrocycles (one for each race). This author uses the term macrocycle slightly differently applying one to the base training phase, and one to the build phase. The example below shows a 20-week lead-in period to the first race. However, this example is only showing one calendar year of training. The reality is this athlete has been performing base training since October, which means the total base phase was closer to 16-18 weeks duration. The length of the base phase should be worked out by using the running distance you need to achieve in peak training, then work backward using the 10% rule to calculate running distances in the weeks leading up to the event. Remember, that in shorter-distance events, the training running distances will often be longer than the race itself. In the base phase, the athlete worked on increasing their running volume (distances) by applying the 10% progression rule. From February onwards the focus of training moved from increasing running volume to increasing intensity (speed work). Here is how the next stage of the annual plan looks.

You can see that a 3-month period has been allocated to the specific preparation (or build) phase. Within that phase mesocycles are allocated to different training focuses. In this case, the athlete has started with a strength and stability block. This means more focus on gym work (while continuing to complete LSD sessions). In March, the focus switches to threshold training (they call it aerobic but mean “lactate” threshold). This is where tempo and Fartlek training will be used (alongside some LSD sessions). As this mesocycle continues you would expect to see running volume peak, then slowly decrease and intensity increase, until the pre-competition block where a taper will be applied (intensity maintained, but volume significantly reduced).

In the image below you can see volume peaks in the middle of the threshold phase. You can also see a clear taper in the pre-competition phase immediately leading up to the first race.

The second race

This particular athlete decided to take the (USA) summer off structured training and wanted to pick up their training for the 5km race from mid-August, leaving a 14-week lead into the 5km race they would like to peak for in November. This author uses the term “transition” to refer to the first couple of weeks back from a training break. This just indicates that the athlete begins to do some low-intensity training through these two weeks to transition from rest to training. Because the 2nd race is only 5km in length, the base phase is much shorter in this macrocycle as the athlete doesn’t need to build a lot of volume. In this example, the athlete follows up 2 weeks of easy running sessions (transition) with 4 weeks of base training where running distances increase (over-distance training). Then follows an eight-week build (specific) phase where the athlete works on speed with intensity peaking towards the end of the phase, then a 1-week taper leading into the race.

So, there you have it. Obviously, plans will look slightly different for different athletes depending on their level of condition and the races they are preparing for, but the essence of the approach remains the same.

Endurance athletes tend to have fewer fitness components to focus on than team sport athletes. This makes the periodisation process somewhat more straightforward. While an endurance athlete may use multiple training approaches simultaneously throughout their training phases, they are not burdened with also having to put time into training the skills and tactical game-play approaches that a team sport athlete is required to do. Applying periodised planning to team sports poses unique challenges due to the variety of training goals, the volume of concurrent training and practices, and the extended season of competition (Gamble, 2013).

The windows of time that conditioning coaches have to work on cardiovascular training modes with sporting athletes is also often limited due to shorter off-seasons and an inability to monitor athlete training closely (if they are not in camp or assembled as a team). This means a slightly different approach is required for periodised cardio training when it comes to team sport athletes.

The major obstacle that trainers face in implementing a periodised cardio training approach with sports athletes is the frequency of matches, and the length of the competitive season. This means a classic linear periodisation approach is difficult to follow as these athletes don’t need to simply peak for an event, but need to maintain a level of conditioning throughout a season that may last up to 35 weeks. Combine this with the fact that maintenance of resistance training modalities is equally important for some sporting athletes, and the need to work on sporting skills and tactics, it is easy to see why a traditional approach is unsuitable in this context.

The training goals of a sporting athlete may include (but are not limited to) hypertrophy, maximum strength, explosive power, metabolic conditioning, injury prevention and improvement of sporting skill sets. All of these must be addressed in the training plan. A trainer must think carefully about the placement of each training focus in the annual plan to avoid those that may conflict with each other. For example, when prescribing strength training (often in the general preparation phase), it is likely that athletes will also be working on metabolic conditioning (cardio) and will also be involved in training sessions involving technical and tactical skill work (team or sports practices). This means that the scheduling of sessions targeting different training focuses needs to be carefully thought out to avoid one impacting negatively on another. Gamble (2013) gives evidence of this when he reports that after cardio conditioning, athletes are impaired in their ability to perform resistance training.

Gamble (2013) suggests the answer to these issues lies in both the periodisation approach taken, and the daily scheduling of training modalities in the training plan.

It would appear that a mixed linear and non-linear periodisation approach is best for most sports athletes. Gamble (2013) suggests that a non-linear (undulating) approach is more viable when an athlete is in competition. This is because a non-linear approach allows for more variation of volume and intensity both within and between training phases. The flexibility of a non-linear approach allows for multiple training goals to be targeted in each micro-cycle. However, in the preparatory and transition periods a more linear approach may still be warranted (Gamble, 2013).

In terms of the order of training (of different components of fitness), Gamble (2013) suggests that performing resistance training prior to cardio conditioning has less interference effect than doing these training in the opposite order, which is why most elite athletes with train in the gym in the morning and do their conditioning work in the afternoon/evening.

Integrating cardio training into a sports athlete's periodisation

Let’s take a look at the following different cardiovascular training approaches and how they fit into a sport’s athlete periodised plan.

• Long Slow Distance (LSD) training.
• Lactate threshold training.
• Interval training.
• Speed, Agility and Quickness (SAQ) training.

Long Slow Distance (LSD) training

The requirement for LSD training could be argued for almost any sport as it helps create a fitness base for higher-intensity training to come, but the length of time devoted to this form of training will depend on the sport a client engages in. For example, an endurance runner or cyclist would continue to utilise LSD training throughout their yearly training plan as it forms the basis of their entire sport. A field sport athlete like a hockey player, however, would likely perform limited LSD training in the off-season and beginning of the general preparation phases of their training plan, with this form of training giving way to higher intensity, shorter duration training approaches as the competitive season approaches. Other sports like volleyball, might devote a very short period of training to LSD methods (if any) as their sport is primarily anaerobic in nature. Just like other fitness components, LSD training should progress from a general approach (building an aerobic base) to more specific or targeted activities as the season approaches. For example, regardless of the sport you play, if it is done on your feet, involves moving for the majority of the sport and includes repeated higher intensity efforts then hitting the roads, treadmill or park and getting some kilometres under your belt is likely where your general preparation should start. The duration/distance of these sessions should be relative to the running distances involved in a competitive game.

For most team field or court-based sports, a limited period of LSD training will begin in the off-season and progress into the general preparation phase of training. In many cases, athletes are expected to complete the majority of their own LSD training before squads assemble for team training for the season. Many sporting codes have struggled to understand the importance of this form of training to on-field performance until recently. Remember, the purpose of the LSD training phase is to increase VO2 Max or the aerobic engine you have to work with. Even in sports that appear anaerobic in nature, the aerobic system plays a vital role. Most sports are completed over durations of longer than an hour. This requires a high level of aerobic condition if you would like to perform to the best of your abilities towards the end of the game. A larger aerobic base will allow an athlete to recover faster from higher intensity efforts, so they can repeat the effort again sooner, which often translates to better performance. Another advantage of this steady-state cardiovascular training is it helps keep the athlete lean and avoid excess body fat, which in most sports is important for optimal performance.

The following table taken from Foss et al (1998), suggests the relative contributions of the different energy systems during common sports. As you would expect endurance events such as distance running and swimming show a high contribution of the aerobic (oxidative) energy system (70%), while more explosive sports (like basketball) considerably less (20%).

Sport	ATP -PCr and Glycolysis	Glycoloisis and Oxidative	Oxidative
Basketball	60	20	20
Fencing	90	10	0
Field events	90	10	0
Golf swing	95	5	0
Gymnastics	80	15	5
Hockey	50	20	30
Rowing	20	30	50
Running (distance)	10	20	70
Skiing	33	33	33
Soccer	50	20	30
Swimming (distance)	10	20	70
Swimming (50m freestyle)	40	55	5
Tennis	70	20	10
Volleyball	80	5	15

^{Adapted from Foss ML and Keteyan S. (1998): The Physchological Basis of Exercise and Sport 6th Edition}

This, however, does not diminish the importance of developing an aerobic base in athletes engaged in sports that rely more on anaerobic efforts. Multiple studies have demonstrated the value of having a well-developed aerobic base when completing high-intensity repeated efforts. The image below from Bogdanis (2012) shows the increasing importance of the aerobic energy system in subsequent high-intensity sprints. In this study, the contributing energy systems were evaluated in 2 x 30-second all-out sprints separated by a 4-minute rest and clearly exhibit that the aerobic energy system plays a primary role in follow-up sprint efforts.

Other studies have also indicated that the role of the aerobic energy system increases with each subsequent sprint even in very short high-intensity efforts. A study by Kishali and Ulupinar (2021) had kickboxers perform 10 x 6-second maximal cycle sprints with a 30-second rest interval between each. The results of the study showed an increasing reliance on the aerobic system as the sprints went on. The graphs below show the difference in energy contribution between the first and last sprints. Oxidative (aerobic) contributions rose from 8% of energy production in the first sprint to 40% contribution in the last sprint.

Therefore, in a sport where repeated efforts occur over the course of the game, it appears that the athlete with a better level of aerobic conditioning will be able to produce the best series of repeated high-intensity efforts throughout the game. The fitter you are, the more likely you can keep producing intensive efforts meaning as the less aerobically fit athletes tire, you will maintain your output and start to dominate!

This means LSD training is a viable training approach for sports athletes, however, the time they have to devote to this type of activity is limited given the raft of other training goals they have. This is why athletes and coaches often choose more efficient modes of cardio training. The point of the season that this training mode will be used (transition and early general preparation phases) will likely correspond with when general strength conditioning is done. Elite athletes with more time to train can schedule their strength training for earlier in the day, while most amateurs will schedule these training sessions on different days.

Lactate threshold training

Lactate threshold training can provide benefits to a wide range of athletes involved in sports. Any athlete involved in a sport that requires repeated higher-intensity efforts mixed with lower-intensity efforts (like football, rugby and hockey) can gain performance improvement from lactate threshold training.

The length of time devoted to this training method will be dependent on the sport the athlete is involved in. For example, longer duration steady state athletes like 10km runners through to marathoners, would likely include tempo or fartlek training sessions in their programmes across the training calendar, whereas a field sport athlete is more likely to use lactate threshold training in the later part of the general conditioning phase of training with this form of training giving way to shorter, more intense sessions (like interval and SAQ training) as the season draws closer. In most cases, lactate threshold training is more effective after a block of aerobic base training (LSD).

As with other training modes, lactate threshold training can progress from a more general approach when building an aerobic base (on the track or on the road/trail), through to more specific sessions performed on the field of play. Fartlek training (in particular) has the flexibility to be used across multiple phases of the training calendar from longer more aerobic-focused efforts in the general preparation phase, through to more of an anaerobic focus in the specific preparation and pre-season phase. In many field sports, speed-play will be used in season also in the form of continuous full-field drills and may even include sporting equipment (like balls) for specificity. This is because most field sports games are made up of long periods of continuous movement performed at different speeds. As the season approaches, these sessions should begin to reflect the movement durations and intensities required during a competitive game.

Some trainers will continue to use shorter duration tempo runs alongside other training focuses, e.g. speed/agility, in order to maintain training gains in-season. These types of sessions are probably better thought of as aerobic intervals and would begin to reflect usual running distances and speeds of periods of unbroken play during games.

In summary, the use of lactate threshold training modalities such as tempo and fartlek training would undoubtedly benefit athletes engaged in intermittent sports, however, the window for working on this approach in isolation is very limited, so sporting athletes will usually perform this type of training in the early phase of their team conditioning sessions through use of conditioning games on the field (involving continuous application various running speeds). As the season approaches, these distances and intensities will start to match the actual distances and intensities required for games.

Interval training

This type of training will be a main-stay of most sporting athletes' cardio conditioning. In the general preparation phase, these intervals will be longer (aerobic) and less intense, but as they move through the specific preparation phase and into competition, intervals will become shorter and more intense anaerobic efforts (reflective of the work:rest ratios observed in competitive games).

In-season, the use of conditioning games offers an efficient means of working on match-specific cardio conditioning and performance skills in the same tasks. Interval training for sports athletes can be tailored to match the requirements of the sport. For example, rather than being performed in a single direction, using more game specific movement patterns and change of direction appears to be more useful. Gamble (2013) use of more specific movement patterns like shuttles and other change of direction tasks also improves movement economy and intermuscular co-ordination in sporting athletes.

The efficiency of this form of training makes high-intensity interval training a staple of most conditioning sessions for sports athletes. This form of training appears to elicit improvement in VO2 Max, muscle oxidative capacity and improved recovery between intense efforts (Gamble, 2013). The addition of sport-specific movement patterns and even the inclusion of sport-specific skills makes this an attractive training modality as this conditioning can often be embedded within team training in-season, negating the requirement for additional conditioning sessions. This is important in-season as adequate rest and recovery between training and games is vital.

Speed, Agility and Quickness training (SAQ)

This is a vital form of training for most sports. In the same way that the various resistance training modes were preparing the muscles for sports-specific power production, SAQ training is the tip of the cardio training pyramid. The work that athletes have done building their aerobic base and raising their lactate threshold in the earlier training phases starts to give way to SAQ training as the season approaches.

Athletes will start to focus on developing speed, agility and quickness off the mark in training in the specific preparation period and continue to work on these elements throughout the season. Gamble (2013) suggests that for a lot of sports, top-end straight-line speed is rarely the focus of these trainings as opportunities to display this in games are limited. Instead, the focus will be on sport-specific distances and movement patterns, which in a sport like basketball (or racquet sports) may include sideways and backwards sprinting. However, in full-field sports like football, rugby and hockey, top-end speed over longer distances might have more importance.

It’s important when designing an SAQ session for an athlete you need to look closely at their sport and position. Most field and court sports involve multi-directional movement including:

• Linear forward (e.g. football)
• Linear backwards (e.g. touch rugby)
• Lateral (e.g. basketball)
• Diagonal (e.g. squash)
• Vertical (e.g. volleyball).

High-intensity interval training approaches and game-play simulation will continue to be used to try and maintain aerobic fitness gains, but at least some of the field-based sessions will begin to focus on a mixture of drills designed to improve SAQ. It must be remembered that SAQ in relation to sport is not a ‘one and done’ effort situation. The key is the ability to perform repeated efforts, so SAQ drills will likely be designed to reflect the repeated effort requirements of a game (including work:rest ratios). The training phase in which these skills will be targeted will often coincide with power training (or contrast training) in gym sessions, which means consideration must be given to the volume of this training and the rest and recovery required between sessions (due to the high neural demand associated with these forms of training).

Sample annual periodisation plan for team sports athlete

The following will take you through the process of developing a periodised annual plan for a case study athlete. This particular example has been put together for an Australian Rules Footballer who plays in the elite division.

This information is adapted from the Australian Strength and Conditioning Association Level 1 Coach Accreditation Participant.

Now that we know a bit more about AFL, a typical season and the physical demands of the sport, let’s have a look at what a periodised training plan might look like for these athletes. Note: This example will only show the cardiovascular modes of training.
Click to download: Periodised Plan: AFL Athlete Example

By now, you should feel confident in formatting a periodisation spreadsheet. But if you need a reminder, see the following video that discusses how to format a periodisation plan. Please note, that the video refers to a periodisation plan for resistance training, not cardio.

Right, time to apply what you have learned. Head to your assessment for an assessment guide video and instructions on submitting your assessments.

The assessment guide video explains your assessment task, which requires you to use the information you have learned on this topic to help a case study client. This assessment will require you to apply the knowledge you have learned and practised by completing the following tasks:

1. Select an athlete and provide a brief profile of them.
2. Give a basic overview of the seasonal requirements of your athlete’s sport.
3. Identify three cardiovascular modalities that would be best targeted to improve your chosen athlete’s performance in their sport/discipline.
4. Create a year-long periodisation of the cardiovascular training plan for your athlete.
5. Provide an overview with clear rationale for the periodised plan you created.