Part C-Workplace Practice

MODULE 7: WORKPLACE PRACTICES – PART C

CREDITS: 10

LEVEL: 5

What are Workplace Practices?

Workplace practices are rules and regulations organisations put in place to improve working conditions for employees and ensure efficient workplace operations. Working practices ensure high safety standards or help improve productivity by enhancing staff satisfaction. The expectation is that workplace practices will be followed. They may be visible to employees–talked about, written down, posted on walls and forming part of a management strategy. Or they may form part of general practices followed in day-to-day operations without specific thought, but necessary for smooth business practices and operations.

Workplace practice that provides employees with clear expectations will help to improve morale and provide direction. For example, workplace practices govern much of the flight attendant’s role.

Welcome to the team. One of the key aspects of working for any organisation is that you will be working as part of a team or a group. This is usually standard workplace practice.

A group means more than two people who regularly interact with one another over a period in pursuit of common goals. A good understanding of how teams or groups work together is critical to successful engagement in a team.

During your working life, you will be part of many groups working together to reach a goal. This section will explore all the different processes that contribute to a group’s effectiveness.

Sometimes, you may be forced into a team environment for daily tasks or major projects, where working independently may have been better. There are certain situations where the use of a group is appropriate and some situations where a group is not appropriate.

Group work is appropriate when:

• The activity requires more than one person (adventure tourism operations).
• The individual lacks the knowledge, skills, and experience to complete a task alone.
• The activity must be completed quickly (putting out a large fire).
• The individual requires emotional support from others (support group meetings).
• The group can access more resources than an individual (investors, shareholders).

Group work is inappropriate when:

• The activity would be hindered by the involvement of others (tour bus drivers).
• Privacy and confidentiality are required (private tour guide).
• The individual has all the knowledge, skills, and experience to do the activity alone.
• There is a lack of resources for a group (the business can only afford to employ one staff member).
• An individual must complete the activity alone (tour guide).

Advantages of Working in Groups

There are many advantages to working in groups. Group work can assist individuals in learning new skills, including leadership. The other valuable skills include:

• Communication
• Negotiation
• Delegation
• Co-operation
• Evaluation.

Disadvantages of Working in Groups

There are some disadvantages to working in groups, and it is wise to know these pitfalls before forming a group. Depending on your resources, timeframe and intended goal, the effort required to maintain team morale and togetherness may outweigh the actual task completion.

The advantages and disadvantages of working in groups are analysed further in the table below.

The following points impact group achievement. Click on each heading to explore more.

Let’s say that you are part of a group that looks fabulous on the surface. You have a good balance of expertise and the willingness of all participants to participate. Many things can still influence the effectiveness of what the group carries out.

Some factors influence group effectiveness. Click on the headings to explore more.

A good example is a sports team with a high level of commitment and team members who work together well. This team will outperform an opposing team with uncommitted and disorganised members.

These factors influence group cohesiveness:

• Time spent together
• Interpersonal communication
• Similarities of attitudes, behaviour, and goals
• Group size
• Loyalty to group
• Levels of satisfaction
• Group productivity/outcomes
• Incentive and reward systems
• Threats from outsiders, resistance to outside change
• Need for belonging.

Rules

Having a set of agreed ‘ground' rules will counter some of the disadvantages in group situations. In the beginning, the group members should agree on the ‘ground rules’ relating to group decision-making, conflict resolution, power-sharing, and workload.

Here are some things to keep in mind when working as part of a group:

• Include all group members in developing the ‘ground rules’.
• Keep communication channels open.
• Encourage team members to speak their minds.
• Provide full access to information.
• All group members should agree to the rules and be bound to obey the rules.
• Do not allow extreme and strident voices to dominate the discussion and obstruct the team's process.
• Avoid old grievances. Rules should be about future behaviour.
• The rules should be written down (meeting minutes) using neutral language and ordinary, non-technical terminology.
• There should be consequences for breaking the rules.

Group Goals

A goal is an ideal, a desired place toward which people work, a state of affairs that people value.

A Group Goal is a future state of affairs desired by enough group members to motivate the group to work towards its achievement.

Short Term Goals

In setting short-term goals, choose ones that fulfil the following:

• Can be reached in a specific and reasonable length of time.
• Can be recognised when achieved.
• Can be used as stepping-stones to long-term goals.

Long Term Goals

In setting long-term goals, ensure:

• The goal is realistic in the present and challenging in the future.
• That they are compatible with the purpose of the group.
• That they incorporate the short-term goals.
• That they have specific and identifiable results that allow for evaluation.

Examples of Goals include:

• A group competing in a competitive sporting activity has a common goal: to win.
• A group trying to gather information will have a common goal: that of collecting the information.
• A group trying to generate ideas will have a common goal: using techniques like brainstorming or mind-mapping to generate ideas.

The S.M.A.R.T. theory

S.M.A.R.T. goals are:

• Specific: Well-defined, clear, and unambiguous.
• Measurable: With specific criteria that measure your progress toward accomplishing the goal.
• Achievable: Attainable and not impossible to achieve.
• Realistic: Within reach, realistic, and relevant to your life purpose.
• Timely: With a clearly defined timeline, including a starting date and a target date. The purpose is to create urgency.

Watch this video

It expands upon the S.M.A.R.T. goals framework. (2:05)

Norms

A ‘norm’, in this context, refers to a standard set of rules or behaviours that is unspoken in a group. The group lives by these norms, usually naturally adopted by group members. When a group member does not adopt them or steps out of line, their peers often make them aware of this.

If you work in a corporate environment, there may be an unwritten rule that everyone dresses very formally in suits and ties and stockings and high-heeled shoes most days, but that it is OK to relax these rules on a Friday.

Norms cover many types of behaviour, such as:

• Dress
• Appearance
• Interaction. E.g. who speaks to whom and how often the boss meets with the team
• Language. For example, is humour encouraged, or is there a more formal tone?
• Resources. For example, who is allocated which tasks? Who gets the best car park?

Norms that are imperative to the workplace include those that surround work performance. For instance, the group norm may be that whilst the standard opening hours are 9 am-5 pm, most people stay later than that when there are urgent deadlines to meet. If a group member left at 5 pm on a day that the rest of the group was working later, they may be seen as not contributing to the group outcome as much as they should have, even though that person perceived that they were performing to the expected standard.

Similarly, a group consensus may be that customers are always responded to within 24 hours, but when the enquiry level is at total capacity - after a marketing campaign - this response time is not viably possible with the current number of staff. Still, the expectation of the customer or management does not change because the ’24 hours’ is the expected norm.

Groups are formed via various means. We have learnt about the different situations where groups are appropriate. We have also discovered how important it is for the group to have a clear goal.

Sometimes, groups are formed based on random events. However, you will find that there is an underlying process at play.

Group Formation

This diagram shows the progression from separate individuals to a unified group. The diagram refers to terms such as forming, storming, etc., which is a theory about how groups form. Tuckman’s Model of Group Development involves various stages that don’t necessarily occur sequentially. A team may progress through these stages and remain at the stages for varying lengths of time. Sometimes, a team may become stuck in a particular stage and fail to progress, whilst others can regress to earlier stages.

Click on the headings to learn more about the five stages of Tuckerman's model.

Watch this video

It details the forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning as told by the Fellowship of the Ring. (4:59)

The Roles People Play in Groups

Kenneth Benne and Paul Sheats were two social theorists who wrote an influential article titled ‘Functional Roles of Group Members’ in the 1940s. In it, they defined 26 different group roles that can be played by one or more people within a group. Their work influenced other early research and thinking on group function.

A group is made up of people who will play different roles. Some people are helpful and supportive, others are more concerned about getting the work done, and others can cause friction, disharmony, or discord within the team. How these people interact and relate to one another is a critical factor in determining how successful the group will be at achieving its mission.

You've probably worked in groups that are effective and groups that are not. Knowing what moves a group forward and what limits its progress can be helpful. Benne and Sheats defined three categories of group roles. We will discuss two of them:

• Task roles
• Maintenance roles

Task Roles

Task roles relate to getting the work done and accomplishing group tasks. They represent the different roles needed to take a project step by step from the initial conception to action. A person displaying ‘task role’ behaviour might say, ‘Right, I’ll complete that last action’, or ‘Now let’s assign a team for the final presentation’.

Learn more about task roles in the following table.

Maintenance Roles

Maintenance roles contribute to the positive functioning of the group. The maintenance behaviour aims to build relationships within the group that cooperate and support each other. The behaviour is called ‘maintenance’ because it helps to maintain a productive group. A person displaying maintenance behaviour might say: ‘Well done, your input has helped the team’.

Maintenance roles are explained below. Click on the headings to find out more.

When a group forms, a leader appears either naturally or via appointment. To succeed in leading their group, they will adopt a leadership style. Many leadership styles may emerge, and we will discuss them in this section.

The possible leadership styles that you may have considered in earlier studies are:

• Autocratic leadership.
• Bureaucratic leadership.
• Charismatic leadership.
• Democratic leadership/participative leadership.
• Laissez-faire leadership.

Let’s look at these in more detail.

Autocratic Leadership

• The autocratic leader exerts high power over his or her team members.
• People within the team are given few opportunities to make suggestions, even if these are in the team's or organisation’s interest.
• Team members resent being treated like this, leading to high absenteeism and staff turnover.
• Also, the team's output does not benefit from the creativity and experience of all team members, so many of the benefits of teamwork are lost.
• For some routine and unskilled jobs, however, this style can remain effective where the advantages of control outweigh the disadvantages.

Bureaucratic Leadership

• Bureaucratic leaders work ‘by the book’, ensuring their staff follow procedures strictly.
• This is a very appropriate style for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery, with toxic substances or at heights) or where large sums of money are involved (such as cash- handling).
• In other situations, the inflexibility and high levels of control exerted can demoralise staff and diminish the organisation’s ability to react to changing external circumstances.

Charismatic Leadership

• Charismatic leaders inject vast doses of enthusiasm into their teams and are very energetic in driving others forward.
• However, a charismatic leader can tend to believe more in him or herself than in their team.
• This can create a risk that a project, or even an entire organisation, might collapse if the leader were to leave. In the eyes of their followers, success is tied up with the presence of the charismatic leader.
• As such, charismatic leadership carries great responsibility and needs long-term commitment from the leader.

Democratic Leadership/Participative Leadership

• A democratic leader invites other team members to contribute to decision-making.
• This not only increases job satisfaction by involving employees or team members in what’s going on, but it also helps to develop people’s skills.
• Employees and team members feel in control of their destiny and are motivated to work hard by more than just a financial reward.
• As participation takes time, this style can lead to things happening more slowly than an autocratic approach, but often the result is better. It can be most suitable where teamwork is essential and quality is more important than speed to market or productivity.

Laissez-Faire Leadership

• This French phrase means ‘leave it be’ and describes a leader who leaves his or her colleagues to get on with their work.
• It can be effective if the leader monitors what is being achieved and regularly communicates this to his or her team.
• Most often, laissez-faire leadership works for teams where the individuals are experienced and skilled self-starters.
• Unfortunately, it can also refer to situations where managers are not exerting sufficient control.

Watch this video

It discusses the five leadership styles mentioned above. (4:08)

The Difficulty with Group Decision-Making

A significant difficulty with making decisions as a group is deciding how to make the decision!

• Should the leader make the decision?
• Should the leader delegate the decision to some other member of the group?
• Should the group decide on some form of a majority vote?
• Should all decisions involving the group be made by consensus?

Beware that when a consensus approach is used, there is a danger that the decision may represent a false consensus. A false consensus occurs when group members appear to accept a proposed course of action but have private reservations, which, for whatever reason, they choose not to share with the other group members.

Attributes of the Decision-Making Process

According to the Vroom-Yetton leadership model, three factors should be considered.

1. Command Style
2. Consultative Style
3. Consensus Style.

Watch this video

It is about the Vroom-Yetton leadership model. (3:33)

Click on the headings to explore more.

Collective Consciousness

Collective consciousness refers to the shared beliefs and moral attitudes that operate as a unifying force within society. It could include:

• Politics - democracy
• Religion - Christianity
• Economy - free trade
• Sport - rugby
• Workplace.

This term was used by the French social theorist Emile Durkheim.

Durkheim argued that in ‘traditional’ societies (those based around family or tribal relationships), religion played an essential role in uniting members through the creation of a shared consciousness.

In societies of this type, the contents of an individual's consciousness are largely shared in common with all other members of their society, creating a mechanical solidarity through mutual likeness.

Groupthink

• In 1972, in his book Victims of Groupthink, Janis Irving, a social psychologist, developed an influential theory of group decision-making that he called Groupthink.
• The idea is that Groupthink is evident when ‘maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more critical than realistically considering the facts'.

Groupthink Actions and Motives

During Groupthink, group members avoid promoting viewpoints outside the comfort zone of the consensus thinking within the group.

Bandwagon

The bandwagon effect is the observation that people often do and believe things because many other people do and believe the same things.

• The effect is often called herd instinct.
• People tend to follow the crowd without examining the merits of a particular thing.
• The general rule is that conduct, or beliefs spread among people in a group just like a fad or a trend.
• The probability of any individual adopting group beliefs increases proportionately as more people come on board.
• As more people believe in something, others also ‘hop on the bandwagon’ regardless of the underlying evidence.
• The tendency to follow the actions or beliefs of others can occur because individuals prefer to conform or derive information from others.

Preconditions for Groupthink

Groupthink is most likely to occur when certain preconditions are met, such as:

• When the group is highly cohesive.
• When the group is isolated from contrary opinions.
• When the group is ruled by a directive leader who makes his or her wishes known.

Disadvantages of Groupthink

Groupthink may cause groups to make hasty, irrational decisions, where individual doubts are set aside for fear of upsetting the group’s harmony. Independent thinking, individual creativity and uniqueness are lost in the pursuit of group cohesiveness.

Strategies to Avoid Groupthink

Watch this video

It is about Groupthink, and how to prevent it. (11:48)

Cultural Effects on Group Processes

Simply put, ‘culture’ refers to a group or community with which you share everyday experiences that shape how you understand the world.

For example, ‘the way things are done around here.’

• The same person can belong to several different cultures. For example, New Zealand, Māori, rugby, and workplace cultures.
• A sub-culture is a more minor culture within a larger culture. For example, The Muslim community is a sub-culture within New Zealand.
• A counterculture has a value system that runs counter to the dominant culture. For example, anti-vaccine during the Covid pandemic.

Group Cultural Influences

Group culture is a learned, shared, patterned, mutually constructed, symbolic, arbitrary, and internalised process. We have explained these influences below regarding their effect on the group process.

Click on the headings below to learn more about the influences and their effect on the group process.

Morale in the workplace is reflective of the outlook, satisfaction, and attitude that team members have at work. If the morale in the workplace is high, it reflects how well employees are supported and how well they are engaged. In other words, morale is a measure of the workplace mood.

Working practices that improve morale cover many initiatives or opportunities to engage employees in their work.

These actions enhance employee retention and happiness and increase satisfaction, which leads to higher productivity and commitment.

Wellbeing

Workplace wellbeing relates to all aspects of working life, from the quality and safety of the physical environment to how workers feel about their work, their working environment, the morale at work and work organisation. Many studies show a direct link between productivity and the general health and wellbeing of the workforce. Post-COVID, many organisations have recognised that the most critical resource in an organisation is human resources, and organisations have also recognised the need to take employee wellbeing seriously. A lack of recognition and care taken for employee wellbeing in day-to-day workplace practices may lead to problems in the workplace, such as stress, absenteeism, bullying, poor mental health and staff retention issues.

Many employers offer wellbeing-centred working practices as a part of their benefits for staff members. For example, organisations may provide on-site gym facilities for employees without time-sensitive commitments. Mental health care, resting rooms, and the ability to take rest days off are practices that focus on providing employees with high wellbeing standards.

The following Learning Activities will not only add value to your learning but also help you to prepare for your assessment.

Watch this video

It poses the question, how mentally healthy is your workplace? (1:10)

Health and Safety in the Workplace

In tourism, health and safety workplace practices are regulated by the Health and Safety at Work Act (HSWA 2015). The Health and Safety at Work (Adventure Activities) Regulations 2016 deal with providing adventure activities. These practices not only cover employees in the workplace but also extend to the safety of visitors to the worksite. Under the HSWA (2015), workplace practices could include risk assessments and the creation of health and safety protocols. Health and safety training should be central to the induction of new employees. Ingrained in workplace practice in tourism is the need for employees to report accidents and identify new hazards to improve accident prevention.

These practical applications of workplace practices in tourism help employees feel supported and ensure that the workplace is as safe and practical as possible.

What is Conflict?

Conflict is when two or more people have different opinions, values, beliefs, needs, wants, ideas, or goals. It is a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party. But, there is some disagreement. A gap between what one person wants/believes and what the other person wants/believes affects their relationship.

You will undoubtedly have witnessed or experienced conflict at some stage. Conflict can occur in any situation, whether it is at home between family members, at school between classmates, in the workplace or even on the sports field.

From now on, when conflict is discussed, it will be in the context of the workplace, concerning individuals and groups.

Definition of Conflict

• Internal conflict can involve incompatible or opposing needs, drives, wishes, or external/internal demands, as well as irrationality, doubts, or worries.
• External conflict (interpersonal conflict) is a state of opposition between two or more individuals.
• Competitive conflict is a state of opposing action between parties with divergent goals, ideas, values, and interests.
• Hostile encounters are where pursuing incompatible goals means that gains to one side come about at the expense of the other.

Causes of Conflict in the Workplace

Many factors contribute to individual and/or group conflict in the workplace.

Explore more about conflict identification by clicking on the following headings.

Watch this video

This TEDx Talk discusses why there is conflict in the workplace and how it can be addressed. (15:44)

Impacts and Consequences of Conflict

When conflict occurs in the workplace it has the potential to cause both negative and positive impacts and consequences. These impacts and consequences can sometimes be seen by managers and at other times remain hidden i.e. they are not readily apparent.

Whether conflict is apparent or hidden, negative conflict can be very destructive to individuals, groups, and organisations.

Destructive Conflict

Destructive means negative or unhelpful. Destructive conflict is the type of conflict we usually think about when we hear ‘conflict’, i.e., arguments or people getting angry and upset.

Negative conflict reduces team efficiency by:

• Creating an environment of disharmony, hostility, fear, frustration, distrust, and avoidance, enabling crucial information being withheld and work patterns being disrupted.
• Diverting the team’s energy towards destructive ends.
• Undermining their credibility in the eyes of outsiders/clients.
• Creating the classic win/lose scenario. Someone is going to win, and someone is going to lose.

Negative Impacts of Conflict on Group Function

The Consequences of Destructive Conflict in the Workplace

There are many negative examples of conflict in the workplace that can have serious repercussions, both for employees and management. These include:

• People potentially lose sight of organisational aims and objectives.
• The organisation's management has to divert energy and resources to resolve the conflict.
• Time is wasted due to arguments between individuals and dealing with formal complaints.
• Staff morale and productivity decline.
• The staff may be unwilling to work together due to mistrust and suspicion.
• Staff are unwilling to share knowledge, skills, and resources.
• High staff turnover and lower performance.
• The staff may divide into rival groups or ‘cliques'.
• Some individuals engage in passive-aggressive behaviour and organisational politics.
• People feel angry, hostile, bitter, hurt, upset, etc.
• People can suffer anxiety, depression, high blood pressure, strokes, and even heart attacks.

Constructive Conflict

While people and organisations typically view conflict as harmful, in many cases, conflict can have positive impacts and consequences. Constructive means positive or helpful.

Positive Impacts of Conflict on Group Function

If you can approach conflict positively, it can impact the group to:

• Improve the quality of decisions
• Stimulate involvement in the discussion
• Arouse creativity and imagination
• Facilitate employee growth
• Increase movement toward goals
• Create an energetic climate
• Build more synergy and cohesion among teams
• Foster new ideas, alternatives, and solutions
• Test positions and beliefs.

Consequences of Constructive Conflict in the Workplace

Watch this video

It is a TEDx Talk about the power of constructive conflict. (11:32)

As you can tell, there are many myths about conflict. The key to successful conflict management is learning how to resolve conflicts in the workplace in a manner that achieves positive and constructive outcomes for both the people involved and the organisation.

Check Your Knowledge

We will now look at three of the many theories about conflict.

Social Identity Theory

Social identity theorists state that families teach their children values, beliefs and norms of behaviour that are considered normal by that family. At the same time, the family actively discourages opposing values, beliefs, and behaviours.

While this process provides families with rules that allow them to function, it separates them. It sometimes brings them into conflict with other groups with different values, beliefs, and norms of behaviour. This process of constructing a social identity includes the following. Click on each heading to read more.

Realistic Group Conflict Theory

This theory states that groups who are in direct competition with overvalued and limited resources will come into conflict, especially if one group’s gains are dependent on losses being suffered by the other group.

While intergroup competition leads to increased in-group solidarity and group cohesiveness, it can at the same time create negative and unfavourable stereotypes towards the other group.

For example, consider two rival species in the wild fighting for territory, or water.

However, when groups are cooperatively interdependent (gains for one are dependent on gains for the other), the intergroup hostility will end, with improved intergroup relations. For example, consider two teams who work in the same company. Each team will have its objective and potential rivalry for resources but at the end of the day, both teams need to cooperate to achieve the overall company objectives.

Equity Theory

This theory states that conflict occurs when an individual feels that the inputs (time, effort, resources, and so on) they put into a job are not matched by outputs of equal value (status, pay, recognition).

In this sense, the individual’s perception of their effort's value and the rewards' corresponding value determines whether s/he will be satisfied. In addition, the individual may compare his/her input and output level with others, expecting they will be equal. Conflict occurs when the individual feels that s/he has contributed more than s/he ought to and/or more than others.

For example, an employee works late into the night to finish a report, expecting his manager to praise him for his extra contribution to the workplace. Should the manager fail to praise the employee for the extra work, the employee may feel angry that his extra work (input) did not receive recognition (output).

Conflict Resolution

When a manager identifies an actual or potential conflict between staff members, s/he can use several strategies to resolve the conflict.

Firstly, the manager can encourage the employees to use personal conflict management strategies to resolve the conflict themselves, i.e. the manager does not get involved in the situation.

Suppose that does not work or the manager feels the need to intervene. In that case, s/he can take a direct approach or use mediation, inquisition, or arbitration strategies to resolve the conflict. Communication skills are fundamental here.

Sometimes, the conflict becomes very serious, for example, in the case of a personal grievance. In this case, the manager must follow formal complaint procedures when resolving the conflict.

Personal Conflict Management Strategies

A manager may decide not to get involved in the situation but instead will advise employees to use personal conflict management strategies to resolve a conflict with another employee.

There are five modes of personal conflict management as described in the ‘Conflict and Conflict Management’ section of ‘The Handbook of Industrial and Organisational Psychology’ by Kenneth Thomas. In it, he describes:

‘Conflict situations’ are situations in which the concerns of two people appear to be incompatible. In such situations, we can describe a person’s behaviour along two primary dimensions:

1. Assertiveness is the extent to which the individual attempts to satisfy his concerns.
2. Cooperativeness is the extent to which the individual attempts to satisfy the other person’s concerns.

These two basic dimensions of behaviour can be used to define five specific methods of dealing with conflicts. These five ‘conflict-handling modes’ are shown in this diagram:

_{Source: Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument, Kenneth W. Thomas and Ralph H. Kilmann, (Copyright: Xicom Incorporated 1974)}

Cultural Preferences of Conflict Management

Culture is the shared set of values, beliefs, norms, attitudes, behaviours, and social structures that define reality and guide everyday social interactions. This definition implies that culture is an attribute of a group.

We normally associate culture with nationality, ethnicity, and tribes. However, teams within political, religious, and work organisations also have beliefs, attitudes and behaviours that constitute unique cultures.

We will identify two types of cultural preferences to evaluate their impact on managing group conflict.

Individualistic Cultural Preference

An important dimension of culture is how members identify with the group (in this case, the team) rather than themselves as individuals.

Individualistic cultures highly value autonomy (free will), initiative, creativity, and independence in decision-making.

Individual interests trump group interests, and any group commitment is a function of a perceived self-benefit.

Collectivist Cultural Preferences

In collectivist cultures, the group is valued above the individual. Group conformity and commitment are maintained at the expense of personal interests.

Group harmony, getting along and maintaining 'face' is crucial.

Individualistic and Collectivist Dimensions of a Culture

• Individualistic culture dominates in Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, whereas collectivism predominates in many other areas.
• In New Zealand, while the dominant culture is individualistic, several collectivist sub-cultures exist, such as Māori, Pacifica, and Asian.

Different Approaches to Conflict

Individualists and collectivists view conflict differently.

Collectivists, who place a high value on harmony and getting along, view conflict as a sign of social failure. As a result, comfort levels with conflict situations are low. Conflict is often avoided.

Involvement and Role of Third Parties

In collectivist cultures, mediators are often expected to provide counsel, evaluation and advice to restore harmony. Disputants engage a third party precisely because they are unable to find a solution themselves.

In Western, individualistic cultures mediation has evolved as a process in which the third party does not make decisions for the disputants. Some mediators provide an evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses, and they are described as evaluative. At the other end of this continuum are mediators who do not make evaluations. They are purely facilitative.

Monitoring for conflict

Managers must monitor the workplace for early warning signs of actual or potential conflict. Monitoring for conflict could enable the conflict to be prevented. However, should the conflict occur, the process of monitoring ensures it can be resolved in an effective and timely manner.

The manager should monitor the actual work areas, as well as personal interactions occurring in those areas. For example, in a hotel, the manager could observe the reception area and the interaction between the duty manager, receptionist, porter and customers.

As we have learned from the previous HRM topics, managers need to be aware of the legislation applicable to the workplace. Nowadays, companies ensure they comply with all the applicable legislation by having written rules or procedures so that staff members are aware of the legislation and how to act in accordance with it.

When a manager is dealing with a conflict situation, s/he should apply the appropriate employment-related laws and company rules to resolve the conflict. Indeed, awareness of the requirements of the legislation may help the manager to identify the early warning signs of the conflict in the first place.

We have already learned much about legislation that applies to the workplace.

The following four acts of legislation are organisational rules that could be developed to ensure compliance and prevent potential conflict. Click on the headings to learn more.

Open Communication in the Workplace

Communication practices cover how organisations talk to their employees and how team members work together. For example, a working practice of encouraging staff to provide their feedback and contribute ideas openly helps to establish strong communication across the whole organisation. These working practices aim to improve productivity and engage employees with the organisation, which is valuable for long-term retention.

If organisations recognise the potential negative consequences of conflict, they may set up procedures to avoid it in the first place. Encouraging open communication in the workplace whereby employees feel comfortable discussing and are willing to resolve issues, can prevent a severe conflict situation from taking place.

It also helps the manager with the monitoring process, whereby an employee can inform the manager of a potential or actual conflict in the workplace that the manager may otherwise be unaware of.

The procedures a manager can implement so that individuals and groups can raise, discuss, and resolve problems that affect their work performance, are as follows:

• Have an open-door policy where employees feel comfortable visiting and speaking to the manager.
• Encourage freedom of speech and open discussion during staff meetings.
• Have anonymous feedback or comment boxes in the staffroom.
• Have formal complaint (grievance) procedures clearly stated in the employment handbook.
• Ask the employee how he/she is doing during feedback sessions or performance management meetings (appraisals).

These procedures need to be documented and reviewed for effectiveness. These are as follows:

• Clear, effective documentation ensures that all staff members know it is possible to raise issues and how to go about it. Documentation also acts as evidence if conflict matters become serious later on.
• Reviewing the documentation ensures the procedures are working. If procedures are not working, find out why not and make amendments.

Management Strategies to Resolve a Conflict

As previously stated, allowing the parties involved to resolve the conflict alone may be impossible or impractical. Inevitably, there will be times when the manager will have to intervene to resolve the conflict situation. There are several strategies to choose from. These are documented in the following table.

The manager should choose the strategy which is most suitable to the given situation and underlying causes. Remember, no matter which strategy is chosen, the actions taken by the manager still need to be in accordance with the requirements of applicable legislation and organisational rules.

Focus on Mediation

Mediation is a flexible approach to addressing issues. The process can be designed to fit the situation, and the specific and broader aspects of the dispute can be addressed. Mediation works towards a genuine resolution of the dispute and places the decisions about that resolution in the hands of the people concerned.

Steps in the Mediation Process

Although every mediation process will differ, there are several common steps in a formal mediation. Click on each heading to learn more.

To successfully resolve conflict, the manager must possess excellent communication skills, especially if s/he chooses the direct approach or mediation strategy. Communication skills are techniques the manager can use to resolve conflict and promote effective working relationships.

Some resourceful communication skills regarding giving feedback are:

• Active listening
• Paraphrasing
• Open-ended questioning.

As these techniques/skills are so essential and transferrable across many workplace situations, we will briefly look at them again in addition to a new one.

Paraphrasing

Questioning as Part of Active Listening

As an active listener, it is important to keep the conversation going. You are using the right body language, minimal encouragers, and paraphrasing but it might be appropriate from time to time to ask a question to keep things flowing, or to dig a little bit deeper.

Assertiveness

If you are assertive, you are confident in your behaviour or style (Merriam-Webster Learner’s Dictionary). Assertiveness means behaving or speaking in a way that expresses your own opinions, feelings and ideas in a clear, direct manner. In other words, being assertive means standing up for yourself.

However, you must be careful not to get carried away; assertive behaviour does not include imposing your opinions on others or denying others the right to express their feelings. Being assertive allows you to engage respectfully with other people, while also respecting your own needs. It ensures that you don't feel taken advantage of.

Have you ever been in a situation where you wanted to say something, but didn't, to avoid having a row? Or perhaps you got so angry that you said something you regretted afterwards. These are examples of where assertive communication would have helped.

When resolving conflict, a manager can act assertively by being clear about what s/he feels and needs, and how it can be achieved. This requires confident, open body language and the ability to communicate calmly without attacking the other person(s), i.e. the parties involved in the conflict.

Tips On How to Improve Your Assertiveness

There are two parts to improve your assertiveness. These are as follows.