Maintaining Animal Welfare

There are five freedoms of animal welfare that all animals are entitled to. The five freedoms of animal welfare are:

1. Freedom from hunger and thirst
   Access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigour.
2. Freedom from discomfort
   Appropriate environmental settings, including shelter and a comfortable area for rest
3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease
   Prevention of pain, injury and disease through proactive diagnosis and treatment
4. Freedom to express normal behaviours
   Providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the same species
5. Freedom from fear and distress
   Ensuring conditions and treatment that avoid mental suffering

Dogs may have inside or outside lifestyles but must have their basic welfare needs taken into consideration. Any environment must ensure that the dog is safe from predators and prevent the dog from being a predator.

Housing

Dogs can be housed indoors and outdoors or a combination of both. When housing a dog, the most important considerations are as follows.

• Outdoor enclosures are completely escape-proof. Dogs are very capable diggers, chewers, climbers, and jumpers.
• The bedding is made of non-toxic materials. Some dogs will chew and even swallow pieces of damaged bedding.
• The bedding must also be warm and dry and completely washable for convenience.
• Raise the bedding off the floor, as this will assist with urine drainage and increase the dog's comfort levels. It is particularly important to provide raised bedding for elderly and arthritic patients to decrease the pressure on painful bones and joints.
• Provide toys that can be chewed. Dogs love to keep their teeth sharp by gnawing on fake bones or other toys.

Temperature and Ventilation

• Depending on the dog's breed, age and condition, dogs should ideally be housed between 15 – 25 degrees Celsius. Where possible, major temperature fluctuations should be avoided. Good ventilation is essential to housing dogs comfortably inside. An outdoor enclosure must also have protection from the weather, such as a kennel or covered enclosure in which their bedding is kept.

Exercise and Socialisation

Dogs need regular exercise, some breeds more than others. Exercise can include walks, runs in the park, or chasing a ball. Exercise is an important social aspect for dogs. Dogs can live in groups or solitary. In the wild, they would live in packs, however domestic dogs see their human family as their pack.

Cats are natural predators and hunt birds, possums, mice, rats, and other small creatures. When advising clients on suitable living environments, perhaps consider inside environments or speciality enclosures. Likewise, roaming cats often get into fights or get attacked by other predators, which can cause injury and disease.

Housing

Cats can be housed indoors and outdoors or a combination of both. When housing a cat, the most important considerations are as follows.

• Indoor cats will require litter trays (one per cat plus one extra in a multi-cat housing situation is recommended).
• Provide a warm place to sleep and retreat.
• Provide scratching posts, climbing areas, and windows if the cat is being housed indoors. Cats love to keep their claws sharp, climb, play and bask in the sun.
• To prevent the cat from becoming a predator, some people provide specially designed outdoor cat runs, known as 'cat parks'. Cat parks are outdoor, escape-proof enclosures that provide a safe and secure way for cats to enjoy the sunshine and fresh air of the outdoors. Installing a cat park also eliminates the chances of cats fighting with other cats, car accidents, injuring or killing wildlife, and getting lost or running away.
• If you are housing the cat long term, you should also incorporate specific environmental enrichment elements to decrease the chances of boredom, which will result in self-destructive behaviours. This may include specific cat toys.

Temperature and Ventilation

• Depending on the cat's breed, age and condition, cats should ideally be housed at a temperature between 15 – 20 degrees Celsius. Where possible, major temperature fluctuations should be avoided. Good ventilation is essential to housing cats comfortably inside.

Exercise and Socialisation

Cats have a natural prey instinct, so they love to chase their tails or a toy like a ball. They love to climb, so a climbing frame is valuable to their environment. Some cats will tolerate and even seek out human interaction; others are happy to entertain themselves. Cats can live happily with other cats or domestic pets. However, they do take a while to adjust to a new companion. Ensure you gradually introduce other animals to an existing cat and be prepared for initial hissing, growling, and even attacking.

Birds are kept either indoors in cages or outdoors in aviaries. Cages normally house one or two small birds; aviaries are suited to groups and/or larger birds.

Housing

Inspecting housing daily for signs of damage is important, as bent and broken wires can cause serious injury to curious birds.

Factors to consider when setting up a cage.

• Ensure adequate shelter; do not place the cage in direct sunlight or rain.
• The minimum cage size for a pair of birds should be three times their combined wingspan. Ideally, the birds should be able to fly freely without hurting themselves.
• Perches should be of varying widths; consider having a natural branch in the cage for variety.
• Do not place water dishes directly underneath perches, as they will become contaminated.
• Provide environmental enrichment, such as bells, ladders, and mirrors. However, be mindful not to overfill the cage.

Factors to consider when setting up an aviary.

• Choose wire strength that reflects the type of birds being housed; large parrots have extremely strong beaks and can easily bite through the soft wire.
• Vermin proof the aviary. Snakes, cats, mice, and rats love birds and will try to attack them. The aviary should have a concrete base to prevent access.
• Ensure the door is secured; many larger birds can open doors using a combination of their beaks and feet.
• If housing breeding birds, the aviary needs to contain enough nesting sites for all pairs, and adequate nesting material should be provided, peat moss or coconut fibre will suffice.
• Perches should be positioned so that flight space is not reduced; there should also be enough perch room for all birds under shelter.

Temperature and Ventilation

• Do not place cages or aviaries in excessively draughty areas, but remember that birds enjoy some sun and fresh air.

Exercise and Socialisation

• Birds are social creatures and enjoy interacting with other birds. Consider housing in pairs or groups. If the bird must be housed individually, ensure it has plenty of interactive toys and a mirror to provide entertainment.

Reptiles are poikilotherms, meaning they cannot generate sufficient heat to drive their metabolism. It is for this reason that heat management when housing reptiles is essential.

Housing

Enclosures for land-based reptiles (lizards and snakes) are known as vivariums. They are usually made of Perspex or glass with a wire or mesh covering. Turtles are generally kept in glass tanks or aquariums, allowing easy observation. The enclosure should have two sections: a water section and a landing area. Reptiles are usually solitary creatures; however, some species can be housed in small groups.

Factors to consider when setting up vivariums.

• Ensure it is escape-proof, some lizards are excellent climbers and snakes can squeeze through gaps as small as 4mm. Use a secure latching system and keep doors and/or covers closed.
• Provide a heat lamp and a UV lamp, and ensure the temperature is consistent.
• Line the flooring with an appropriate substance (will vary depending on the type of reptile). Do not use wire bottomed enclosures as lizard feet/toes can be damaged or amputated, also do not use gravel as lizards can ingest stones.
• Include a hide. These may be made from artificial materials or naturally found in their preferred habitats. Hides provide safety and solace to animals digesting food or protecting themselves from perceived danger.
• Ensure the vivarium is large enough for the reptile; lizards like to move around quite a bit, and even snakes can be active.
• Offer a basking rock.

Factors to consider when setting up aquariums.

• Water should be at least 15cm deep (increased as the turtle grows).
• The temperature of the water should not exceed 28 degrees Celsius
• A good filter is essential to ensure optimum water quality.
• Calcium blocks can reduce acidity in the water and assist with maintaining a strong, healthy shell.
• Include a ramp so the turtle can walk up onto its landing area.

Aquariums must be cleaned regularly to prevent algae and dropping build-ups. Water changes of at least 25% should occur weekly, and pH tests should be performed to ensure levels are between >7 and 8.4. Decorate the aquarium with gravel, wood, rocks, ornaments, and water plants.

Temperature and Lighting

Full-spectrum fluorescent tubes are adequate sources of UVA and UVB for most reptiles. Sun-seeking reptiles such as Bearded Dragons may also require a specific UVB light source. 'Zoo Med Reptisun' and 'URS Outback Max' are UVB light sources suitable for use with high UVB requiring reptiles. UVB is required to facilitate calcium metabolism and strong bones via Vitamin D activation. Reptiles must be exposed to higher temperatures to utilise their skin's UVB/Vitamin D interaction. UVA appears to be necessary for normal behaviour in captive reptiles. Generally, reptiles in captivity should be offered day/night lighting cycles that reflect the seasonal variation. Any lighting should be covered in mesh to prevent the reptile from sustaining burn injuries.

Ideal temperatures for various reptiles are as follows.

• Skinks, dragons, and goannas: 30°C – 35°C
• Geckos and legless lizards: 32°C
• Small pythons: 30oC - 33°C
• Larger pythons: 20oC - 34°C
• Long neck tortoise: 26oC

If reptiles are kept below these optimum temperatures, they may look healthy and eat well but have difficulty digesting their food properly, which can cause impaction and food poisoning. Vivarium temperatures should be taken from the base level and not at the top of the cage, and a thermal gradient should always be included in the vivarium design and set-up. A thermal gradient is a temperature variation from one end of the vivarium to the other; a suitable thermal gradient for most reptiles is 24 degrees Celsius at one end and 32°C at the other. This enables poikilothermic animals to move from a warmer to a cooler area and back when necessary.

Relative humidity is a very important aspect of reptile husbandry. If the relative humidity is too high, it will lead to skin and respiratory problems. If the relative humidity is too low, it will lead to skin dryness, difficulty in shedding (ecdysis), and possibly dehydration.

Factors that influence relative humidity.

• The presence of drinking water.
• Internal air temperature.
• Rate of air exchange in the vivarium.
• Relative humidity and temperature outside the vivarium.

Exercise and Socialisation

• Reptiles must have a housing environment large enough to allow free movement. Lizards and snakes must be able to run/slither around, and turtles must swim freely. Bearded dragons love interacting with humans and will dance back and forth in their enclosure to get your attention. Other lizards may be more docile but still happy to be handled. Small pythons are very easy to handle and will happily explore your hands, arms, and the surrounding furniture if removed from their enclosure; remember not to allow them to wrap around your neck. In all cases, using a hand sanitiser specially formulated for reptile handling is a good idea.

Rabbits are popular pets in Australia (although they are not permitted to be kept as domestic pets in Queensland).

Housing

Rabbits can be housed either indoors or outdoors. Access to unfiltered sunlight and the opportunity to exercise daily is essential to their mental and physical health and well-being and must be considered if they are housed indoors. Outdoor rabbit enclosures are known as hutches and are either permanent structures or may serve only as temporary housing to allow the rabbits to graze on grass and get some exposure to natural light. Indoor enclosures are known as pens or cages.

Factors to consider when setting up an outdoor hutch.

• The minimum size should allow the rabbit to stand upright on its back feet and take at least three successive hops; larger hutches are recommended.
• Construction materials should be chew-proof.
• Flooring should be made of wire or large netting. This allows the rabbits to graze and forage on grass. Be mindful that wire can lead to a condition known as pododermatitis.
• Bedding must also be used on the flooring in certain sections; hay, sawdust, straw, or chaff are usually used.

Factors to consider when setting up an indoor pen or cage.

• Plastic or stainless steel cages with stainless steel floors can be used, although larger pens are recommended to allow more space per animal.
• Bedding must be used on the stainless steel flooring; hay, sawdust, straw, or chaff are usually used.
• Protection from predators, dogs, cats, and small children must be maintained if free-roaming is allowed in a room or the entire house.

Watering Systems

• Watering bottles can be made of glass or plastic, often plastic is preferred over glass due to its durability. Bottles must be made from a material that can be washed in detergents without breaking down. Stainless steel sipper tubes with a ball-bearing valve are inserted into the water bottle via a bung. Bungs may be made of cork or rubber and have a protective steel disk covering to prevent animals from gnawing them.
• Ceramic or earthenware bowls may also be used as watering systems for rabbits. However, bowls must be raised off ground level to ensure rabbits can not contaminate water by pushing bedding, food, and faeces into the bowl.
• Automatic watering systems are commonly used where many rabbits are housed together, such as in an animal house setting. Administering medications and water via automatic watering systems can save a lot of labour in these situations. However, there are several disadvantages with this method, rabbits may play with the watering system and leakage is quite common causing potential enclosure flooding. Regular maintenance of automatic watering systems is essential to control the build-up of bacteria and fungi.

Temperature and Ventilation

• If the rabbits will be housed entirely indoors (either temporarily or permanently), it is important to maintain a temperature of around 16– 20 degrees Celsius. A constant relative humidity of around 50% is ideal for a rabbit, as low relative humidity can cause respiratory problems. Access to fresh air is extremely important when housing rabbits, the bacterial breakdown of urea in faeces produces ammonia which can irritate the mucous membranes of animals and lead to respiratory infections. Adequate air exchanges will reduce the number of pathogens and odours and help maintain the desired temperature and humidity.

Exercise and Socialisation

• Rabbits are social creatures, so having more than one is encouraged. You can successfully mix rabbit species and house rabbits with cats and dogs, providing no inter-species aggression exists. However, housing guinea pigs with rabbits is generally discouraged as guinea pigs can contract fatal diseases (such as Bordetella bronchiseptica) from rabbits.

Guinea Pigs are small pocket pets that weigh between one and two kilograms; they are docile and make good family pets.

Housing

Guinea Pigs can be housed outdoors, in hutches, or indoors. Important: Guinea pigs should not be housed with rabbits due to the possible transmission of potentially fatal Bordetella Bronchiseptica from rabbits to guinea pigs. Indoor enclosures are known as pens or cages. Mobile racks of metal and plastic cages are suitable for housing smaller animals, and floor pens are generally used to hold larger animals.

Factors to consider when setting up an outdoor hutch.

• The minimum size for a guinea pig hutch housing one guinea pig is 1m x 0.5m x 0.25m high.
• The flooring of hutches should be made of wire or large netting. This allows for grazing and foraging on the grass. Be mindful that wire can lead to a condition known as pododermatitis.
• Bedding should allow the animal to burrow, so straw or hay is recommended (straw and hay can also be eaten and is an excellent source of fibre). If wood shavings and sawdust are used for bedding, it is important that there are no cyanides in the wood as this could be deadly to guinea pigs and damp wood shavings and sawdust can promote fungal infections.

Factors to consider when setting up an indoor pen or cage.

• Indoor floor pens should be at least 40cm high to ensure no escapees.
• Due to the large volume of guinea pigs that may be contained in a floor pen, it is essential to consider ease of cleaning during construction.

Watering Systems

Watering bottles can be made of glass or plastic, often plastic is preferred over glass due to its durability. Bottles must be made from a material that can be washed in detergents without breaking down. Stainless steel sipper tubes with a ball-bearing valve are inserted into the water bottle via a bung. Bungs may be made of cork or rubber and have a protective steel disk covering to prevent animals from gnawing them. Automatic watering systems are commonly used to house many guinea pigs together, such as in an animal house setting. However, there are several disadvantages to automatic watering systems. Guinea pigs may play with the watering system, and leakage is common, causing potential enclosure flooding. Regular maintenance of automatic watering systems is essential to control the build-up of bacteria and fungi. Important: Guinea pigs cannot synthesize Vitamin C, so their diet must be provided to avoid deficiencies and the development of health issues such as scurvy. Generally, Vitamin C (and other required medications) is added to their drinking water daily.

Temperature and Ventilation

Outdoor housing should be well-ventilated and placed in a draught-free area out of the weather. Guinea pigs are extremely susceptible to heat stress, so indoor provisions may have to be made during extreme summer weather. Indoor housing should maintain a temperature of around 18– 23 degrees Celsius. A constant relative humidity of around 50% is ideal for a guinea pig, as low relative humidity can cause respiratory problems. Access to fresh air is extremely important when housing guinea pigs; the bacterial breakdown of urea in faeces and urine produces ammonia, which can irritate the mucous membranes of animals and lead to respiratory infections. Adequate air exchanges will reduce the number of pathogens and odours and help maintain the desired temperature and humidity.

Exercise and Socialisation

Guinea pigs have quite fragile bones and internal organs, therefore handling must be done carefully and children must be advised to be gentle and always sit on the ground when playing to avoid potentially dropping the animal. Guinea pigs will squeak when they are hungry and will often communicate with their owner in this manner; they also make a purring noise indicating enjoyment while being petted or stroked. Guinea Pigs are social animals and can be housed in groups.

Mice are popular pets, highly intelligent, affectionate, and provide hours of entertainment for their owners.

Housing

Typically mice are housed in open-top cages with wire lids, care should be taken when removing mice from their enclosure and when putting them back to ensure their toes and tails are not caught in the lid. Mice are also great escape artists - secure housing is essential for keeping them safe and contained.

Factors to consider when setting up a mouse enclosure.

• Offer enrichment within the enclosure, a wheel, or other 'toys'.
• Provide hides and nesting materials.
• Protect them from predators, have a secure lid, and don't place the enclosure where cats and dogs can attack it.

Temperature and Ventilation

• Mice prefer warmer temperatures and, if necessary, will huddle together and build nests to keep warm. Try to maintain enclosure temperatures between 19– 21 degrees Celsius.

Exercise and Socialisation

• Mice are very active, so an exercise wheel or similar in their cage is advised. Mice live in social groups; these groups must be maintained from the time of weaning to limit inter-group aggression and so that they can establish a hierarchy. Male mice tend to fight (depending on their breed). This must be monitored, and provisions must be implemented to ensure inter-group aggression does not injure more vulnerable animals.

Livestock such as cows, sheep, goats, and pigs are normally kept on farms as production animals.

Housing

Sheep and cows tend to live outside in paddocks all year long. Therefore, fencing and gates must be well maintained to prevent escape and/or injury. Sufficient protection from the elements must be provided; this usually consists of natural barrier protection (trees or shrubs). Pigs are often housed in a blended inside and outside enclosure or shed; overcrowding should be avoided. Chickens are often housed in sheds or free-range enclosures. Protection from predators must be considered for all types of livestock; wild dogs and snakes are of particular concern.

Temperature and Ventilation

Livestock requires protection from the elements. Natural shelters (trees/bushes) or man-made shelters should be provided.

Exercise and Socialisation

Livestock do not need traditional exercise; their paddock must be sufficient to allow free-roaming. Livestock generally congregate in groups for safety against prey species. Sheep, in particular, should not be housed alone. Livestock can be wary and often move away from you as you approach.

Horses, technically a form of livestock, are often kept as pets for exercise and companionship.

Housing

Horses may live in paddocks all year long. Therefore, fencing and gates must be well maintained to prevent escape and/or injury. Sufficient protection from the elements must be provided, including natural barrier protection (trees or shrubs) or access to a sheltered yard or stable. Any housing must be protected from predators.

Temperature and Ventilation

During winter, horses may be rugged to protect them from the cold.

Exercise and Socialisation

Depending on the use of the horse, their exercise needs will vary. For example, racehorses are highly athletic animals and are exercised each day. Family-owned horses may only be ridden once or twice a week. Horses must have access to a paddock or yard of sufficient size to allow them to run (canter) around if they want to. Horses are social animals and enjoy living with other horses; they often engage in social activities such as playing and mutual grooming. Plenty of human interaction is required as a substitute if they are housed individually.