Assess the situation and plan your response

Before you learn how to provide basic animal first aid, it is important to remember the basic principles of animal welfare and ethics.

Animal ethics

Ethical management and handling of animals are critical to the animal care industry.

As an animal carer, it is your responsibility to behave ethically when working with animals. You can think about ethical behaviours as ‘doing the right thing’ or ‘doing what is best’ for the animal.

You can be confident that you are upholding animal ethics if you follow the principles of animal welfare.

Principles of animal welfare

There are eight key principles of animal welfare.

1. Animals should not suffer from prolonged hunger
2. Animals should not suffer from prolonged thirst
3. Animals should have a comfortable environment
4. Animals should have enough space to be able to move around freely
5. Animals should be free of physical injuries
6. Animals should be free of disease
7. Animals should not suffer pain, fear or stress
8. Animals should be able to express normal, non-harmful, social behaviours

Upholding animal ethics when providing essential first aid to animals

In this module, your focus is on providing essential first aid to animals. You will learn how to provide an initial response where first aid is required. You will learn how to:

1. assess circumstances and plan your response
2. approach, secure and protect animals
3. provide first aid assistance to animals.

 

The following table summarises the principles relevant to this module and how you can uphold them in the workplace when you provide basic animal first aid.

Principle	The animal should have access to:	As an animal first aider, you should:
Animals should be free of physical injuries	appropriate medical care safe, low stress and humane handling	use humane handling techniques and restraints when capturing, handling, and transporting provide appropriate medical care assess the situation and control any hazards that pose a risk to the animal(s)
Animals should not suffer pain, fear or stress	appropriate management for its species safe, low stress and humane handling non-stressful environments and situations quick and humane death (if the animal needs to be euthanised)	avoid unnecessary interaction with, or unnecessary handling or restraint of the animal handle the animal carefully and respectfully restrain the animal safely and appropriately avoid stressful situations for the animal, such as inappropriate restraint assess the situation and control any hazards that pose a risk to the animal(s)

Recognising an emergency situation

In this topic, we will be studying emergencies in the context of providing animal first aid.

We can define an emergency as a situation where there is an immediate risk to the health and life of an animal. An emergency situation requires immediate intervention to prevent deterioration.

A medical emergency is a situation that requires immediate veterinary attention or first aid:

• to stabilise the animal (prevent death)
• protect any injuries from further harm
• increase the likelihood of survival until veterinary intervention.

 

Emergencies often occur without warning, such as a cat attacking a rabbit. Others, although just as serious, are not as easy to see. “For example, a German Shepherd appears restless after a large meal and tries to vomit; unknown to the owner, this is the beginning of gastric dilatation and volvulus (GDV), one of the most serious medical emergencies in dogs” (Williams, Llera & Ward n.d.).

You will need to know how to recognise emergencies when:

• taking phone calls
• a client arrives with an ill or injured animal
• communicating with staff
• in the field (places that are not in an animal medical clinic).

In the case of emergencies, an animal care workplace should establish procedures and practices to facilitate the speedy assessment of animal incidents. They should be set up to give an immediate first aid response or advise owners on how to carry out their own effective first aid. Make sure you know which veterinary clinic, wildlife rescue centre or other entity you will contact for support, and which facilities are available for emergencies during normal work hours and after hours.

Watch 

The next video explains what an emergency is. 

Classifying emergencies

It is essential when working in the animal care industry that you can recognise when a situation is an emergency because it will help determine your actions when providing first aid. Situations requiring first aid can be classified into one of four types:

1. Life-threatening emergencies require immediate attention. The animal is at risk of dying or deteriorating significantly if not seen by a veterinarian within 1-60 minutes.
2. Intermediate emergencies require immediate attention but are not imminently life-threatening. The animal needs to be seen by a veterinarian in the next 30 minutes to 2 hours.
3. Minor emergencies do not require immediate veterinary attention. However, the animal needs to be seen that day, preferably sooner rather than later.
4. Non-emergencies can usually be treated with just basic first aid and do not require a veterinarian’s attention unless the animal’s condition significantly deteriorates.

All other medical situations are considered routine care. Routine care is planned and therefore does not require first aid. The following table lists some examples of situations and symptoms that could be classified as the four different levels of emergency as well as some common routine care procedures.

Classification	Situation and symptoms
Life-threatening emergency	Snake bite * Gastric dilation (volvulus) Swollen or distended abdomen, with or without vomiting Difficulty breathing Raspy breathing sounds Blue tongue Heat stress Major blood loss and bleeding that will not stop Penetrating wounds Male cat not passing urine Recently suffered cardiac arrest or respiratory arrest Anaphylactic reaction Hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar) Dystocia - very slow or difficult labour, for example labouring for 2+ hours with no progression or a puppy, kitten, etc., is visibly stuck Cane toad toxicity Trauma from being hit by a car Trauma due to a fall from a height or blunt force, even if the animal is not showing any ill effects Collapse or inability to stand or walk Burns – fire, hot water, chemicals Pyretherin toxicity in cats (e.g., application of topical tick prevention for dogs) Loss of consciousness
Immediate attention – intermediate emergency	Tick paralysis * Birthing difficulties * Male cat passing urine with difficulty Toxin ingestion, for example, mouse, rat and snail baits, prescriptions, over-the-counter or illegal drugs and household cleaners Open fracture Trouble walking; prolapsed eyeball Closed fracture; bowel blockage Chocolate ingestion Colic Seizure or convulsion Loss of balance
Minor emergency	Small cuts Eye injuries Multiple vomits with pain and/or blood Diarrhea with pain and/or blood Constipation Head tilt
Non-emergency	Catfight abscess Torn toenail Nicked toe while trimming claws Skin/coat issues/hair los One-off vomit One-off loose motion Anorexia (refusal to eat) Non-weight bearing, holding up limb; bird striking a window
Routine care	Vaccination Preventative health Dental health check Senior health check Arthritis

First aid management principles and rules

Life-threatening, intermediate and minor emergencies all require first aid. The aims of first aid are to stop the animal from deteriorating, to promote recovery and to preserve life. It is not to treat the animal. First aid should be administered, and the animal should be suitably restrained and then transported to the nearest open veterinary facility so that they may fully treat the emergency condition.

What is animal first aid?

”First aid refers to medical attention that is usually administered immediately after the injury occurs and at the location where it occurred. It often consists of a one-time, short-term treatment and requires little technology or training to administer” (Occupational Safety & Health Administration n.d.).

Animal first aid is based on the principles of medicine and surgery. The main purpose is to alleviate unnecessary suffering of the animal and give them the best chance of survival until a veterinarian is able to attend the animal.

In an emergency, when no veterinarian is immediately available to treat the animal, a first aider, such as an untrained person, veterinary nurse or animal carer, may administer first aid treatment to animals as an interim measure. Aim to be prepared. Obtain the necessary skills to act quickly and suitably. Providing first aid “bridges the gap between ‘first response’ and ‘professional care’” (Philpott n.d.).

First aid skills will be invaluable when working in your animal care workplace, giving you the confidence to deal with incidents that may come your way (AAWS 2014).

Aims, principles and rules of first aid

The aims of first aid are to:

• Preserve life
• Prevent suffering
• Prevent the situation from deteriorating.

The seven principles of first aid are to:

1. Preserve life
2. Prevent deterioration
3. Promote recovery
4. Take immediate action
5. Calm the situation down
6. Call for medical assistance
7. Apply the relevant treatment.

 

The rules of first aid are to:

• Keep calm
• Maintain the airway
• Control the hemorrhage
• Seek assistance if required.

Watch

The next couple of videos are some examples of animal care emergency rooms and what their jobs entail. 

 

 

When you are responsible for looking after an animal, you must protect their welfare. This is your duty of care. However, you also have a duty of care to protect yourself and any other people or animals in the area.

When attending to an animal emergency, your first priority is to make sure that no one else becomes a casualty. So, before you assess the animal and plan your first aid procedures, you must first secure the scene. Check the immediate surroundings for any signs of risks or dangers. Control or remove the dangers, but only if it is safe to - thereby avoiding further risk to the animal or yourself. To secure the scene:

1. Assess the situation. Look for potential dangers to yourself, the injured animal, other people (including staff, clients, the general public) and other animals.
2. Where possible, minimise the risks, but make sure your actions do not put yourself or anyone else at further risk.
3. Now that you are sure there is no danger, you can triage the animal. Assess its condition and what it may require. Don’t move the animal except if it is in a life-threatening position, such as on a road and at risk of being hit by a car.
4. If needed call for veterinary or wildlife emergency assistance. They can advise you if you are in doubt as to what to do.
5. Apply first aid.
6. If needed, transport directly to veterinary or wildlife assistance.

The specific potential hazards and risks will vary depending on the situation. If you are unsure the scene is appropriately secured, seek assistance or advice.

In the table below, here are some potential situations that may occur and steps you can take to secure the scene. 

Situation	Steps to secure the scene
1. Dog injured by broken glass in a park	1. Clear nearby glass or other sharp objects. 2. Keep other dogs and people at a distance. 3. Approach the dog calmly, observing for signs of pain or aggression. 4. Use a leash or muzzle if needed for restraint.
2. Horse with a suspected leg injury in a paddock	1. Clear the area of other horses. 2. Close the gate to prevent escape. 3. Approach the horse slowly, speaking softly. 4. Keep bystanders back to minimise stress.
3. A cat found limping near a busy street	1. Move the cat to a quiet, safe area away from traffic. 2. Use a towel or blanket to restrain if necessary. 3. Monitor traffic, keeping a lookout for vehicles. 4. Calmly examine for injuries while reassuring the cat.
4. A bird was injured on the ground in a public park	1. Move people and other animals away to reduce stress. 2. Approach slowly and avoid sudden movements. 3. Gently place the bird in a secure box or carrier. 4. Minimise noise and activity near the bird.
5. Dog attacked by another animal in a backyard	1. Ensure the other animal is secured away. 2. Approach slowly to avoid startling the injured dog. 3. Use a muzzle or leash for restraint if needed. 4. Keep other pets and people away to reduce stress.
6. Snake found with an injury on a hiking trail	1. Clear the area of people and pets. 2. Avoid sudden movements and remain calm. 3. If experienced, use a snake-handling tool to secure the snake. 4. Call a trained handler or wildlife rescuer if necessary.
7. Rabbit caught in garden netting	1. Carefully cut away the netting to free the rabbit. 2. Move other pets and people away from the scene. 3. Use a towel to wrap and secure the rabbit to reduce movement. 4. Handle gently to avoid causing additional stress.
8. A horse with a head wound in a stable	1. Ensure the horse is in a stable area with no escape routes. 2. Approach calmly, staying out of the horse’s blind spots. 3. Use a halter and lead if needed for gentle control. 4. Minimise noise to keep the horse calm.
9. Dog injured by barbed wire in a paddock	1. Remove any nearby barbed wire or sharp objects. 2. Approach cautiously and avoid touching the wound area. 3. Use a muzzle if the dog shows signs of aggression. 4. Keep other animals and bystanders back for safety.
10. Cat injured in an indoor household environment	1. Secure other pets in a separate room. 2. Remove any dangerous items (e.g., sharp objects, small furniture). 3. Approach the cat slowly, watching for signs of distress. 4. Use a towel to gently wrap and secure if needed for examination.

 

 

Stressed and injured animals

When animals are sick or injured or visiting your animal care facility, they will be under some level of stress. Stress can lead to aggressive and defensive behaviour. Always evaluate the risks to both yourself, others and the animal before approaching or handling a sick or injured animal.

Animals have five basic reactions to stress or threat – the five ‘Fs’.

The five ‘Fs’ are:

1. Fight
2. Flight
3. Freeze
4. Faint
5. Fidget (or fooling around).

 

When an animal is distressed and in pain, they, just like humans, can act in ways they otherwise would not. When this happens, they may:

• further injure themselves
• heighten their anxiety levels
• become aggressive.

Animal temperaments

An animal’s temperament is its individual “personality, makeup, disposition, or nature” (American Kennel Club n.d.). In other words, how an animal usually behaves is determined by its temperament. Animals can react negatively to a hesitant or inexperienced handler because the animal may interpret this fear or hesitancy as aggressive behaviour. Occasionally another worker or the owner of the animal may be required to calm the animal to enable animal handling, examination and treatment.

People must know their limitations around animals and work within these limits to avoid injury. Through understanding animal temperament and behaviour, the risk of injury can be reduced. Animals can bite, scratch or give a swift, hard kick. So, observe them carefully at times and respect their size and strength. Where possible, don't stand behind them (Workplace Health and Safety Queensland 2018).

Animals must be handled carefully as their behaviour is not always predictable. There is no simple risk control that will eliminate hazards completely. However, you can avoid incidents with animals by assessing the animal prior to handling and having a discussion, if possible, with its owner about its temperament and the likelihood of the animal becoming aggressive.

Examine the following range of dog temperaments and the related behaviours.

• Sound temperament: Confident, relaxed and self-assertive.
• Unsound temperament: Not calm, confident or self-assertive and displays fearful behaviour.
• Shy temperament: Afraid of unfamiliar people, places and things.
• Sharp temperament: Reacts immediately to individual environmental stimuli without thought.
• Submissive temperament: Surrenders authority and control to its leader.
• Sharp-shy temperament: Displays aggression based on fear.
• Temperamental temperament: Cannot cope with environmental stress.
• Hyperactive temperament: Moving fast constantly.
• Over-aggressive temperament: Reacts with more aggression than the situation warrants such as lunging, snarling, hissing, biting, and scratching.
• Frightened temperament: This could present as freeze, flight, fight, faint or fidget.

Potential risks to yourself and other people

When providing first aid, there are several hazards you should consider that pose a risk to you, as the first aider, as well as to other people that may be assisting or are simply present in the general area.

The most common risks to yourself and other people include:

• bites, scratches and kicks
• envenomation
• zoonoses
• manual handling.

Bites, scratches and kicks

Animal behaviour is difficult to predict and may change without warning. There is always a risk of being bitten, scratched, kicked or harmed in other ways by the animal you are working with. However, while administering first aid, the potential risk is often higher because the animal is typically afraid, stressed and/or in pain. These conditions typically make even the most placid animal less receptive to handling.

All animals are capable of inflicting bites and scratches.

The size of the animal, its dentition and jaw strength are all factors affecting the severity of bite they can deliver. Even a small animal may bite or scratch through your skin. Larger animals, such as livestock or kangaroos, can also inflict impact injuries (crushing, bruising and fractures) by kicking you.

Minimise the risk of bites, scratches and kicks

To minimise the risk of the animal injuring you or other people:

• use appropriate restraint and handling techniques and following the facility’s policies and procedures
• learn and recognise ‘warning’ signs typical for different species of animal
• handle aggressive or potentially dangerous animals with assistance
• wear appropriate PPE.

 

Anyone who is bitten or scratched may be exposed to biological hazards, which may be transmitted through saliva, secretions and blood of the animal that has bitten the person. If you are bitten or scratched, immediately wash with soap, preferably with an antiseptic soap, and running water. If the bite or scratch results in bleeding, immediately scrub the area for at least 15 minutes. After cleaning the area, apply a topical disinfectant and bandage to protect the wound. Depending on the severity of the injury, such as if you received a deep scratch or your foot is crushed by a large animal, seek medical treatment.

Some strategies to help you minimise your risk of bites, scratches and kicks can include: 

Assess the Animal's Behaviour	Observe the animal’s body language for signs of stress, fear, or aggression, such as growling, pinned ears, bared teeth, or a defensive stance.
Approach Calmly and Confidently	Avoid sudden movements or loud noises that could startle the animal. Approach slowly and from the side, keeping your movements controlled and deliberate.
Use Proper Restraint Equipment	For animals prone to aggression, use muzzles, leashes, or harnesses, and ensure you’re trained in safe restraint techniques to reduce the risk of bites and scratches.
Wear Protective Clothing	Use appropriate protective gear such as gloves, long-sleeved clothing, and boots to minimise injuries from scratches or kicks.
Avoid Direct Eye Contact	Some animals perceive direct eye contact as a threat, so use a soft gaze and avoid staring directly at the animal.
Be Mindful of Personal Space	Maintain a safe distance and respect the animal’s personal space, especially with nervous or injured animals. Avoid reaching directly over the animal's head or back, as this can feel threatening to them.
Use Barriers if Needed	For particularly aggressive or unpredictable animals, use barriers like gates, partitions, or blankets to reduce the risk of contact during handling.
Stay Aware of Blind Spots	Larger animals like horses and cattle stay out of their blind spots, particularly behind them, as they may kick if startled.
Handle Animals Only When Necessary	If the animal is very aggressive or in extreme pain, consider whether handling is necessary or call for assistance from an experienced handler or veterinarian.
Enlist Help	For large or unpredictable animals, have an additional handler assist you in better controlling the situation and reducing stress on the animal.
Speak in a Calm, Soothing Voice	Use a quiet, reassuring tone to help calm the animal and establish trust, reducing the likelihood of aggressive reactions.
Monitor for Changes in Behaviour	Monitor any change in the animal’s behaviour or stress level, and adjust your approach accordingly to prevent escalation.

Regardless of the severity of the injury, inform your supervisor.

  

 

Envenomation

Envenomation is a risk in the animal care industry and occurs when a poisonous substance produced by an animal is injected into a person’s body by a bite, sting or penetrating wound.

Envenomation can be caused by snake or spider bites and marine animals. The type of envenomation will determine the specific treatment required.

Minimise the risk of envenomation

If the animal requiring first aid treatment is a venomous snake, your handling techniques and appropriate PPE are critical for your protection. If you are not confident handling snakes safely, ask for assistance.

If the animal requiring first ais is suspected of being bitten by a snake, make sure you check the immediate surroundings to ensure the snake has moved on or that is safely captured by an experienced snake catcher. Do not attempt to capture a wild snake yourself.

To minimise the risk of envenomation when working with venomous animals, such as snakes or spiders, it’s essential to follow specific safety protocols. Here are strategies to help reduce this risk:

Learn Proper Handling Techniques	Ensure you’re trained in safe handling techniques specific to venomous species, including using appropriate tools and equipment.
Use Protective Gear	Wear personal protective equipment (PPE), such as long gloves, snake gaiters, and closed-toe boots, to reduce the chance of a bite.
Use Specialised Equipment	To handle venomous reptiles, use tools like snake hooks, tongs, and transparent shields to keep a safe distance between you and the animal.
Stay Calm and Avoid Sudden Movements	Venomous animals are often more reactive to quick movements. Move slowly and smoothly to avoid triggering defensive behaviours.
Avoid Handling When Not Necessary	Handle venomous animals only when essential, and limit physical contact as much as possible. Observe and work on them from a safe distance when feasible.
Know the Species and Its Behaviour	Familiarise yourself with the specific behaviours of the species you’re working with, including signs of agitation or aggression, to better anticipate their reactions.
Ensure Proper Housing and Enclosures	Use secure, escape-proof enclosures with proper ventilation, and always close and lock enclosures immediately after access.
Have a Clear Plan and Emergency Protocol	Know the first aid procedures and have emergency protocols in place for envenomation. Keep antivenom and a first aid kit accessible if appropriate.
Work in Pairs or With an Experienced Partner	Whenever possible, work with a trained colleague to assist and observe, providing immediate help if an incident occurs.
Maintain Situational Awareness	Always be aware of where the animal is and avoid distractions that could lead to mistakes. Stay focused and avoid turning your back on the animal.
Use Clear Signage	Label enclosures or areas where venomous animals are kept with clear signs to alert others and reduce accidental exposure.
Minimise Stress on the Animal	Stress can provoke venomous animals to strike. Keep handling to a minimum, and create a calm, low-stress environment to reduce defensive behaviours.
Keep a Safe Distance	Even smaller animals like spiders or scorpions use tools to handle and maintain a safe distance, as their strikes can be fast and unpredictable.
Regularly Inspect Equipment for Safety	Regularly check tools and enclosures to ensure they’re in good condition and can securely contain and handle venomous animals without failure.

Treating snake bites

Australian venomous snakes produce venom that travels through the body in the lymphatic system rather than in the bloodstream. The fluid in the lymphatic system is pushed around the body by physical movement. If a person is bitten by a snake:

1. Keep the person calm. Minimise their distress and movement.
2. Do not wash the area of the bite or try to suck out the venom. It is extremely important to retain traces of venom for use with venom identification kits.
3. Stop lymphatic spread. Do not use a tourniquet. Tourniquets can cause harmful restriction of blood flow. Instead, bandage the bite site firmly, splint and immobilise the whole limb. Ask the person to remain calm and as still as they can to minimise the movement of lymph around their body.
4. Seek medical attention.
5. Attend a hospital and receive antivenom.

 

Watch

Watch the following video (6:46 min) by St John WA, which demonstrates how to treat a snake bite.

 

 

Zoonoses

Diseases that can spread from animals to humans are called zoonotic diseases or zoonoses. Pathogens (infectious, disease-causing agents) may be transmitted to humans directly from the animal via blood or other bodily substances during diagnostic or treatment procedures or indirectly from the animal’s environment.

It is important for you to understand that zoonoses may be contracted from both ill and apparently healthy animals.

Common zoonotic diseases in Australia include:

• Leptospirosis – a bacterial infection (Leptospira spp.) spread by contact with animal urine, such as infected dogs, pigs, cattle and rodents (NSW Health 2021).
• Psittacosis – a bacterial infection (Chlamydophila psittaci) transmitted by birds (NSW Health 2018).
• Q fever – a bacterial infection (Coxiella burnetiid) most commonly transmitted by cattle, sheep and goats (NSW Health 2019).
• Toxoplasmosis – a protozoan infection (Toxoplasma gondii) most commonly transmitted by cats in Australia. If infection occurs during pregnancy, it can cause “serious fetal disease” (Department of Health 2015).

 

Watch

Minimise the risk of zoonoses

Contamination by zoonoses can be preventable by taking several precautions, including:

• practising good personal and hand hygiene
• using appropriate disinfectants
• keeping immunisations up to date
• providing prompt and effective first aid treatment to cuts and scratches
• using personal protective equipment such as overalls, gloves, boots, goggles, scrub tops over your normal uniform and aprons
• following cleaning and disinfectant protocols 
• following isolating processes with sick animals 
• properly handling and storing food 
• staff training on policies and procedures
• practice bite and scratch prevention 

Manual handling

Manual handling covers a wide range of activities including:

• Lifting
• Pushing
• Pulling
• Holding
• Carrying
• Handling and restraining animals (Better Heath Channel 2017)

 

Minimise the risk of manual handling injuries

Your back is particularly at risk of manual handling injuries. Follow the specific manual handling procedures outlined by your workplace. To reduce the risk of manual handling injuries while providing first aid to animals:

• Lift and carry heavy animals correctly by keeping the animal close to your body and lifting with your thigh muscles.
• Never attempt to lift or carry animals by yourself if you think they are too heavy. Always ask for assistance to lift an animal over 20 kg, regardless of whether you think you can lift it by yourself.
• Use stretchers, lifting tables and other devices to assist you whenever they are available.
• Organise the immediate area to reduce the amount of bending, twisting and stretching required to pick up an animal.
• Take frequent breaks.
• Cool down after handling heavy animals with gentle, sustained stretches.
• Avoid awkward or twisting movement 
• Improve your general fitness and strength.
• Warm up cold muscles with gentle stretches before lifting or carrying an animal (Better Heath Channel 2017).
• Maintain a safe distance from kick zones 
• Avoiding overreaching
• Use supportive footwear

 

Manual Handing Fundermentals

 

Watch 

The next couple of videos provide a demonstration of how to lift items correctly. The videos demonstrate using boxes, think of the boxes as animals. 

 

  

Aggressive owners

Dealing with clients is sometimes harder than dealing with their pets. Having to deal with stressed owners in an animal emergency is a common occurrence. Some owners may be upset, frustrated or worried and some may become aggressive.

Good communication skills will help reduce the likelihood of verbal abuse or physical aggression. If you have a client who is aggressive, do not take them into a room that does not have two exits. Remember that in every consult or preparation room there are sharp instruments such as needles and scissors.

If the owner becomes aggressive you may have to tactfully ask them to leave the room. For example, you may have to say, “I can see that you are becoming upset over the stress of your pet, but I feel it would be better if you waited out in reception while staff look after your pet.” Or “The reason your pet is acting this way is that he/she sees that you’re upset, and we need to treat them.”

If you are concerned for your safety or the safety of any animals or other people present, do not hesitate to ask for assistance.

Strategies for dealing with aggressive owners 

Stay Calm and Professional	Maintain Composure: Keep your tone calm, steady, and polite. Avoid matching the owner’s aggression, as this can escalate the situation. Control Your Body Language: Keep an open posture and avoid crossing your arms or making gestures that might seem defensive or confrontational.
Listen Actively	Show Empathy: Allow the owner to express their concerns fully. Use phrases like, “I understand this is upsetting for you,” to show that you’re listening. Reflect and Validate: Repeat back their concerns to make them feel heard, for example, “I can see that you’re frustrated about the wait time.”
Set Boundaries and Stay Safe	Maintain Physical Distance: If the owner’s aggression is physical, keep a safe distance. Position yourself near an exit if possible. Establish Limits: Politely state that aggression is not acceptable. For instance, “I want to help, but I can’t do that if you’re shouting at me.”
Use Empathy to Defuse Tension	Acknowledge Their Emotion: Statements like, “I understand this is important to you,” or “I know you’re worried about your pet,” can help defuse anger. Express Understanding: Emphasise that you’re committed to finding a solution and that you’re there to help their pet.
Focus on the Issue, Not the Behaviour	Redirect the Conversation: Guide the discussion back to the pet’s needs or issue at hand, keeping focus on how to resolve it. Ask Questions: This shows your interest in helping and can encourage the owner to engage constructively.
Use a Low, Calm Tone of Voice	Avoid Raising Your Voice: Speak in a lower tone, which tends to be calming. A steady voice conveys control and can calm an aggressive person. Slow Your Speech: Slowing your rate of speech can help to convey calmness and prevent the conversation from escalating.
Know When to Involve a Supervisor	Escalate When Necessary: If the situation does not improve, involve a manager or supervisor who may have more experience with de-escalation. Remain Non-Confrontational: Frame the escalation as a positive, for example, “I’d like to bring my manager into this conversation to make sure we’re addressing your concerns fully.”
Offer Solutions or Alternatives	Provide Options: Offer reasonable solutions or compromises to address their concerns, which can help the owner feel empowered. Explain Policies with Compassion: If certain policies must be followed, explain why these policies exist and show understanding of the owner’s frustration.
Stay Patient and Avoid Personalising Aggression	Separate Yourself from the Situation: Remind yourself that their aggression may stem from fear, stress, or frustration rather than personal hostility. Keep Your Focus on the Outcome: Prioritise the goal of helping the pet and maintaining a professional approach.
Follow Up After the Incident	Debrief with Colleagues: Discuss the situation with your team for support and to learn from it. Document the Interaction: If aggression was serious, document the details in line with workplace policies to have a record in case further action is needed.

Mental trauma

The stress of witnessing an accident or serious injuries, or working with animals in emergencies can cause lasting trauma for the first aider, other animals, medical staff and bystanders.

Debriefing with colleagues about the incident and your involvement can help you process any potentially traumatic experiences and maybe a documented step in your workplace’s emergency policies and procedures. To minimise the risk of mental trauma or other mental health concerns related to your work, you may need to seek out mental health support services in your workplace or local area.

Working with animals can be rewarding, but it can also expose caregivers to significant mental and emotional challenges. Here are some examples of mental trauma that may arise from working in animal care:

Mental/ Emotional Challenge	Description	Example
Compassion Fatigue	Compassion fatigue results from the constant emotional demands of caring for animals in distress, leading to feelings of exhaustion and decreased empathy.	An animal care worker may feel numb or detached after repeatedly witnessing animals in pain or when euthanasia is required.
Moral Distress	This occurs when a caregiver knows the right course of action for an animal but is constrained by workplace policies or resource limitations.	An attendant may feel distressed when unable to provide ideal care due to budget cuts, such as denying treatment to animals that could be saved.
Grief and Loss	Losing animals, especially those under long-term care, can lead to intense grief similar to that felt with human loss.	An attendant who builds a bond with an animal over time may experience significant grief when the animal passes away.
Burnout	The physical and mental exhaustion from a high-stress environment and emotional strain can lead to burnout, affecting motivation and mental health.	Long hours, especially with high needs or large numbers of animals, can lead to overwhelming fatigue, apathy, or anxiety.
Secondary Traumatic Stress (STS)	This is a form of trauma experienced by those exposed indirectly to traumatic events or distressing stories, affecting their mental health.	Animal rescue workers exposed to stories of abuse or seeing animals come in with injuries from neglect may feel traumatised.
Helplessness and Guilt	The inability to help every animal in need can lead to feelings of helplessness, guilt, and self-blame.	A caregiver may feel guilty for not being able to save an animal with limited resources, or may struggle with guilt over animals needing to be rehomed.
Anxiety Related to Aggressive Animals	Frequent interactions with aggressive or unpredictable animals can lead to anxiety and hypervigilance, especially if there’s a risk of injury.	A handler who has been bitten or attacked may develop a fear response or heightened anxiety when approaching similar animals.
Emotional Trauma from Euthanasia	Euthanasia, though sometimes necessary, can cause emotional pain, leading to feelings of sadness, guilt, or moral conflict.	Regularly euthanising animals may lead a caregiver to experience recurring sadness or questioning of their values and purpose.
Stress from Abuse or Neglect Cases	Encountering animals that have been abused or neglected can cause caregivers to experience deep sadness, anger, or vicarious trauma.	A worker at a shelter might feel disturbed and traumatised after handling animals with visible signs of abuse, such as scars or malnutrition.
Witnessing Severe Injury or Death	Exposure to traumatic injuries or witnessing animal deaths can lead to acute stress, nightmares, or intrusive thoughts.	A rescue worker may have flashbacks or nightmares after handling a case where an animal suffered severe injury or died unexpectedly.

Other hazards to consider

The following table provides a summary of some of the other hazards that may occur to yourself and to other people, their effects and safe work practices that you can implement to ensure a safe course of action while providing first aid to an animal.

Hazard	Possible harmful effects to self and others	Methods to control or minimise risk
Traffic	Hit by a vehicle while attending to the animal	Assess the area prior to entering traffic - do not risk your or others’ lives in traffic Have another person keep watch of or direct traffic Wear a high-visibility vest or clothing to ensure you are visible to drivers Move the animal to a safe place before assessing and providing first aid
Environmental conditions	Heat stress or exhaustion Hypothermia Sunburn	Wear appropriate PPE to protect against elements Drink water in hot weather Erect shade or use an umbrella while assessing the animal and providing first aid in direct sunlight Move to an area with shade or protection from elements as soon as possible
Other	Other types of injury	Assess for potential hazards on and around the scene of the incident or situation, including: Fire, gas, fumes and electrical hazards Proximity to other people and animals Proximity to vehicles and machinery The stress level of owners (potential for verbal or physical aggression) Wet or slippery surfaces Blood, urine, other bodily fluid or potentially infectious tissue

Potential risks to the injured animal

Hazards and risks to the animal requiring first aid include additional injury to themselves if they are spooked or by being jolted against the hard materials that are used when transporting the animal.

An injured animal can be at risk of further harm while moving them, particularly if they have spinal injuries or are experiencing shock.

It is important to note when dealing with macropods (kangaroos, wallabies and pademelons) that the stress alone of being captured can cause myopathy (any disease that affects the muscles that control voluntary movement) leading to death. The animal does not have to have suffered any injury for this to occur. They may develop rhabdomyolysis (disintegration of the muscle fibres). This condition can occur anywhere from 24 hours post the stress up to a few weeks after the incident. The macropod will show stiffness and paralysis in the hindquarters, progressing to complete paralysis as it ascends the body. It will also salivate excessively. Death will typically occur within 2-14 days after the stressful incident (Ulyatt 2021).

With this in mind, care must be taken to ensure injured animals on the scene, regardless of species, are:

• not injured or harmed further (for example, go into shock) by human intervention
• not at risk of escaping, causing further injuries to themselves.

The following table provides a summary of some of the hazards that may occur to the injured animal, their effects and safe work practices which you can implement to ensure a safe course of action while providing first aid.

Hazard inflicted by	Possible harmful effects to the injured animal	Control methods to reduce hazard/risk
The injured animal	Trying to escape and causing injury to self or move into the line of traffic. Other animals on the scene – risk to them being injured or causing injury to the injured animal	Allow only experienced and trained staff to handle or restrain animals Restrain or confine additional animals Instruct staff in safe animal handling, including recognising ‘warning’ signs Use personal protective clothing
Traffic	Hit by a car	Have another person keeping watch of traffic Remove animal to a safe place before assessing and providing first aid
Environment	Heat stress/hyperthermia Hypothermia  Sunburn	Provide water in hot weather if safe for the animal Erect shade or use an umbrella while assessing the animal and providing first aid in the sun Move to an area with shade or protection from elements as soon as possible
First aider	Causes further injury or pain when assessing, capturing or transporting the animal	Humane, safe handling techniques Only assess what needs to be assessed and try not to move the animal unnecessarily Calm voice, reassuring tone

Potential risks to other animals

In a first aid situation, it is important to consider other animals in the area as well as other people. If a client brings an injured animal to the veterinary clinic, it is likely that there will be other animals present in the waiting room. If you are out in the field, other animals present may include dogs being walked nearby, other pets of the same owner or other animals in the same stable, herd or flock.

The following table provides a summary of some of the hazards that may occur to other animals, their effects and safe work practices which you can implement to ensure a safe course of action while providing first aid to the injured animal.

Hazard inflicted by	Possible harmful effects to other animals	Control methods to reduce hazard/risk
Animal needing first aid	The animal requiring first aid may become aggressive and lash out at surrounding animals If the animal requiring first aid goes into flight mode, they may move away quickly and knock over other animals If the animal requiring first aid is carrying a disease that is transmitted through blood or other bodily fluids, there is the risk of other animals coming into contact with the bodily fluids and becoming infected.	Secure the scene – move any animals away from the area or direct their owners to contain or take them away. Secure/restrain the injured animal if possible Clean and disinfect the area and any other surfaces the animal may have come into contact with during first aid treatment and transportation
Traffic	If the animal requiring first aid caused a change to traffic conditions, vehicles may swerve, and may hit other animals or other animals may run into traffic Animals killed by vehicles often remain by the side of the road, attracting scavengers, which can in turn be hit by vehicles.	Move the animal to be treated away from traffic as quickly as safely possible Move deceased animals away from the road to reduce the likelihood of scavengers being struck by vehicles
First aider	When the animal requiring first aid is part of a group, such as a mob of kangaroos, herd of cows or flock of birds and the group remains nearby, the presence of the first aider may increase the level of anxiety in the other animals When providing first aid requires separating mothers from their young, the separated animal is likely to experience heightened anxiety, and in the case of separated young, may require active care until the mother can return. If the first aider needs to open gates or cut fences to assist the animal, other animals in that paddock or enclosure may no longer be safely contained.	Use appropriate animal handling techniques Ask for assistance managing the other animals while you attend the animal requiring first aid Make sure all other animals in the same enclosure remain safely contained if there is no risk of contamination Where possible don’t separate mothers from their young. You may need to transport the healthy animal(s) as well as the animal requiring first aid. If the mother requires first aid, make sure the young are appropriately cared for – kept calm, warm and feed. Ask for assistance to manage multiple animals.

Minimise risks

No matter where you work, there will be health and safety procedures that you must follow, and this includes when handling animals. By following the applicable safety procedures, you are ensuring a safe working environment is maintained. This will include the way you handle an animal, all the way through to using personal protective equipment (PPE).

1. Implement Clear Safety Protocols Written Procedures: Establish and regularly review clear, written safety protocols for handling animals and responding to emergencies. Training: Ensure that all staff members are trained in safety practices, including first aid, handling protocols, and emergency response.

2. Understand Animal Behaviour Animal Assessments: Regularly assess animal temperament and behaviour, particularly in new or unpredictable animals. Understand warning signs of aggression or stress. Observe and Learn: Pay attention to changes in animals’ behaviour, which can indicate health issues or stress that may pose a risk.

3. Proper Handling Techniques Use the Right Equipment: Ensure the use of appropriate handling tools, such as leashes, muzzles, or cages, to safely manage animals, particularly aggressive or nervous ones. Manual Handling Training: Ensure staff are trained in proper manual handling techniques to avoid injury while lifting or moving animals.

4. Secure the Environment Barriers and Fencing: Use barriers, cages, or pens to separate animals as needed, particularly those with different temperaments or species that may not get along. Clear Pathways: Keep walkways, aisles, and animal enclosures free of clutter to avoid tripping hazards.

5. Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Protective Gear: Equip staff with appropriate PPE, such as gloves, boots, eye protection, or bite-resistant clothing, depending on the animals they work with. Safety Boots: Ensure workers wear sturdy boots, especially when handling large animals or those known to kick.

6. Minimise Exposure to Zoonoses Hand Hygiene: Encourage regular hand washing and the use of hand sanitiser after handling animals, their waste, or cleaning their enclosures. Vaccinations: Ensure that staff are up-to-date on vaccinations to protect against diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. Disinfect Workspaces: Regularly clean and disinfect areas where animals are housed to reduce the risk of zoonotic diseases.

7. Control Stress in Animals Calm Environment: Minimise loud noises, sudden movements, or overcrowding in animal care areas to prevent animals from becoming stressed or agitated. Proper Enrichment: Provide adequate enrichment and stimulation for animals to reduce stress and prevent behavioural issues that could lead to aggression.

8. Ensure Regular Health Checks Routine Health Assessments: Conduct regular health checks on animals to identify potential health issues early, reducing the risk of sudden illness or aggression. Veterinary Care: Work with veterinarians to ensure animals receive the appropriate care, including vaccinations, parasite control, and treatment for injuries.

9. Develop Emergency Response Plans Accident Protocols: Have an emergency protocol in place for bites, scratches, or animal escapes, including a first aid plan and contact details for emergency services. Evacuation Procedures: Develop and rehearse evacuation procedures in case of fires, natural disasters, or other emergencies that could affect animals and staff.

10. Control Aggression and Behavioural Risks Training in Animal Behaviour: Staff should be trained to recognise signs of aggression or fear in animals and how to respond appropriately. Avoid Sudden Movements: Always approach animals calmly and avoid sudden movements that could startle them. De-escalation Techniques: Train staff in methods for de-escalating tense situations with animals, such as using calming voices or non-threatening body language.

11. Provide Mental Health Support for Staff Stress Management: Offer resources for staff to manage stress, such as counselling or support groups, to reduce the risk of burnout or mental trauma. Regular Breaks: Encourage regular breaks to reduce fatigue and ensure staff remain alert and focused when working with animals.

12. Manage Manual Handling Risks Team Lifting: For larger or heavier animals, ensure that two or more people lift together, or use appropriate mechanical aids like hoists or trolleys. Lift with Proper Technique: Ensure all staff use correct lifting techniques (e.g., bending at the knees, not the waist) to avoid strain or injury.

13. Control Risks from Aggressive Owners Calm Communication: Train staff in how to handle difficult or aggressive owners, remaining calm and focused while setting boundaries and providing solutions. Security Measures: In extreme cases, ensure security personnel are available to manage situations with aggressive or violent individuals.

 

Personal protective equipment

Use the required personal protective equipment (PPE) when dealing with animals. It is vital that all PPE is used in line with the manufacturer’s instructions and workplace procedures.

PPE must fit correctly to ensure it gives you the protection required when handling animals.

Review the following PPE that may be used when handling animals:

PPE (correctly fitted)	Benefits
Examination gloves	Change after each patient to prevent transmission of disease between patients; protection from zoonotic diseases
Animal handling gloves/gauntlets	Protection from bites and scratches
Boots	Protection from the ground/road or an animal stepping on the foot
Sunscreen; wide brimmed hat; shirt with collar and sleeves; long pants; rain jacket with hood; gumboots; warm clothing	Protection from prolonged exposure to UV radiation, heat, cold, rain, rough or wet terrain and insects
Fluro vest	Provides high visibility to surrounding traffic, reducing the risk of a traffic incident
Non-slip, closed in shoes	Protection from zoonotic diseases and slipping
Scrub top over uniform, disposable aprons or gowns	Change after each patient to prevent transmission of disease between patients; protection from zoonotic diseases; keeps uniform clean

Other safety equipment

Other safety equipment includes communication devices, such as mobile phones and radios.

Scenarios where PPE is used and how it provides protection

In the table below are some scenarios of animals being injured and examples of the types of PPE you would use in the scenario and how it would protect you. 

Scenario	PPE Used	How does it protect you?
1. Dog with a deep wound	PPE Used: Gloves (disposable or heavy-duty).	Protection Provided: Prevents direct contact with blood and reduces the risk of infection or disease transmission.
2. A cat in pain with a fractured leg	PPE Used: Arm guards and gloves.	Protection Provided: Shields arms and hands from scratches and bites caused by the cat’s defensive reactions.
3. Snake with a suspected injury to its scales	PPE Used: Snake hook, gaiters, and gloves.	Protection Provided: Prevents bites and reduces the risk of venom exposure during handling.
4. Bird with a broken wing	PPE Used: Towel and gloves.	Protection Provided: Minimises pecking and scratching injuries while restraining the bird safely.
5. Horse with a laceration on its flank	PPE Used: Steel-capped boots, gloves, and safety goggles.	Protection Provided: Protects feet from accidental hoof strikes, hands from infection, and eyes from dirt or debris kicked up.
6. Injured rabbit with a skin tear	PPE Used: Gloves and a gown.	Protection Provided: Reduces the risk of contaminating the wound and protects the handler from scratches.
7. Cow with a swollen hoof	PPE Used: Overalls, gloves, and boots.	Protection Provided: Prevents contamination from mud, manure, or pus and shields the handler from accidental kicks.
8. Kangaroo with a leg injury	PPE Used: Arm guards, gloves, and a protective vest.	Protection Provided: Reduces the risk of scratches or chest blows caused by the kangaroo's strong claws and legs.
9. Dog experiencing seizures after an injury	PPE Used: Gloves and a muzzle (if safe to apply).	Protection Provided: Prevents bites and limits direct contact with saliva or fluids during seizure handling.
10. Sheep with a deep puncture wound	PPE Used: Overalls, gloves, and boots.	Protection Provided: Shields the handler from infectious material and protects feet from trampling.
11. Aggressive goat with a leg injury	PPE Used: Gloves, helmet, and protective vest.	Protection Provided: Protects against headbutts and reduces injury from defensive bites or kicks.
12. Lizard with a tail injury	PPE Used: Gloves and an apron.	Protection Provided: Minimises contact with potential pathogens on the lizard’s skin and protects clothing from fluids.
13. Injured bat with a broken wing	PPE Used: Gloves and goggles.	Protection Provided: Prevents contact with potentially infectious bites or saliva and shields eyes from wing flapping.
14. Piglet with a leg injury	PPE Used: Gloves and boots.	Protection Provided: Protects against exposure to faecal matter or other contaminants in the pen.
15. Injured alpaca with a neck wound	PPE Used: Gloves, protective vest, and safety goggles.	Protection Provided: Protects the handler from spit and sudden defensive movements.

 

The assistance required by the animal involved in the incident will depend on the level of emergency as well as its species and the particulars of the situation. In other words, while first aid may be necessary, the urgency of transporting the animal to a vet will depend on the seriousness of the situation. You may also need to follow other workplace policies and procedures, such as reporting animal abuse to a welfare body.

Workplace policies and procedures for first aid

Your workplace should have animal first aid emergency policies and procedures documented for all staff members to follow. These policies are in place to protect the welfare of staff and the animals in their care.

The Australian Veterinary Association has examples of a multitude of policies covering a wide range of topics relating to animals. For information, review their policies and position statements. Ask your workplace if they have specific policies and procedures that need to be adhered to.

Some of the subjects covered by the Australian Veterinary Association include:

• Animal abuse
• Euthanasia of injured wildlife
• Zoos, aquaria, sanctuaries and animal parks
• Guidelines for the tethering of animals
• Companion animals confined to vehicles
• Heat stress in the horse
• Transport of horses.

Always follow the policies and procedures in your own workplace.

Below is an example from Happy Paws of their Animal First Aid Emergency Policy and Procedure. 

Organisational emergency procedures

Your workplace will have procedures for a variety of subjects related to your particular field of work. Work health and safety (WHS) procedures may include:

• handling animals
• hazard identification and risk minimisation
• manual handling techniques
• controlling the spread of disease, infection control and biohazard management
• incident reporting
• seeking advice from supervisors
• use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
• emergency procedures
• potential escape of an animal
• injury to an animal or other animals, staff and potentially the public.

For example, you should follow your workplace procedures for manual handling of large animals, such as doing a two-person lift of animals heavier than 15-20 kgs.

Emergency plan

Your organisation should have a tailored animal policies and procedures document to follow in the event of needing to apply first aid so that your response is planned, coordinated, prompt and effective.

Ask your animal care workplace to provide and discuss their animal first aid emergency policies and procedures with you, then practice them until you feel confident. Being confident about what to do in an emergency will help reduce stress and prevent mistakes or further injury to animals.

Details may include:

• your responsibilities during an emergency
• communication protocols
• when to notify specific emergency services
• contact details for medical assistance
• contact details of key staff to contact for assistance
• how to alert staff in the workplace to an incident or potential emergency
• other back-up services available during an emergency, including contact details
• location of emergency equipment, such as a first aid kit
• emergency equipment and procedure training tailored to individual roles in the workplace
• a review process after the emergency.

The following checklist is adapted from a draft provided by Safe Work Australia. Your workplace may have some or all the items on this checklist for their own first aid emergency plan.

Animal first aid emergency policies and procedures
Responsibilities Nominated staff with the appropriate skills are responsible for specific tasks during an emergency such as conducting CPR All staff are trained and know what to do, or who to contact in an emergency Procedures for specific tasks are made available to all staff
Emergency contact details Relevant emergency contact details are accessible and on display in a central location Contact details are kept up to date
First aid Conduct a first aid assessment to determine the best options for the animal (triage) The organisation has qualified first aiders and appropriate first aid facilities All staff know the location of first aid facilities and know who the qualified first aid staff are
Post-incident follow-up The organisation has procedures to notify regulators if there is a notifiable incident Procedures are in place to make sure the cause of the incident is investigated and steps are taken to prevent a reoccurrence The organisation has procedures for the welfare of staff after an incident, such as counselling or medical treatment
Review The emergency plan is tested through practice to evaluate its effectiveness A staff member documents the results of the practice A staff member reviews the emergency plan and communicates with other staff if there is an update

Review Safe Work Australia’s Emergency plans and procedures for more information or speak to your supervisor about the policies and procedures in your workplace.

Video

As the following video explains, during an emergency it can be incredibly hard to swiftly find out who to contact or where to go for help. Having a plan will save precious time and could mean saving an animal’s life. Always have important contact and location information stored on your phone, a first aid kit handy and know where to find emergency 24-hour help wherever you go and before you go (Animal Ethics Infolink n.d.).

Assess your options for assisting the animal

One of the steps in your workplace animal emergency policies and procedures document should include assessing options for assisting an animal during an emergency. The process for assessing the options is also known as triage.

Triage is the process of determining of urgency in which an animal requires medical attention. The urgency depends on the likelihood that the animal will die, deteriorate and/or suffer pain.

Your first triage decision is to determine whether it is safe to give the animal first aid. There are two situations where you should not provide first aid to an animal requiring it:

1. When the time taken to apply first aid will cause the animal to deteriorate. In these situations, you must transport the animal to the vet as soon as possible.
2. When providing first aid is too risky for either your safety or the animal’s. In these situations, ask for assistance to capture and transport the animal to the vet.

If it is appropriate to provide first aid, you will need to assess the physical condition and vital signs of the animal to determine what help it requires. The first aid treatment(s) you decide to apply should be according to the animal’s medical needs, which you will learn about later in this module.

However, in brief, examine the animal to determine if they are ill, have been involved in an accident, are under immediate threat of loss of life, or can wait for veterinary assistance. Then, assess the best steps to take, using the seven principles of first aid to guide you:

1. Preserve life
2. Prevent deterioration
3. Promote recovery
4. Take immediate action
5. Calm the situation down
6. Call for medical assistance
7. Apply the relevant treatment.

You are to follow your animal workplace policies and procedures throughout each step.

Once you have made your assessment, your options for assisting the animal may include any one of the following (the order may change depending on the urgency):

• provide immediate first aid to the animal or seek assistance
• prepare the animal for transport
• contact your destination clinic and notify them that you are on the way
• transport the animal to the veterinary hospital
• notify other staff of the incident
• if you haven’t already as part of a previous action, notify your supervisor.

Triage occurs as soon as you arrive on the scene or take the phone call. You will be assessing the animal’s need for first aid versus immediate transport. In other words, you need to decide how long, if at all, veterinary treatment can be delayed. The video, 'Triage: Sorting Urgency' (2:34 min), explains that the goal of triage is to quickly sort casualties into three different categories.

Appropriate triage will give the animal the best chance of survival.

Watch

Watch the following video for more information about how to triage an emergency situation.

For further information on triage, review the article How Emergency Animal Hospitals Work (the triage system).

Communication during triage

Communication skills are vital during triage to obtain correct information swiftly. There are a variety of appropriate techniques that can be useful to obtain and convey key information effectively in your animal care workplace, especially when seeking advice and assistance from your supervisor or communicating with clients and other staff.

Triage may take place over the phone or in person. Phone triage occurs when a person calls in to describe a potential animal emergency. The person taking the phone call may provide lifesaving first aid advice over the phone, such as how to control bleeding.

In-person triage occurs when the animal presents at the clinic or you are in the field with the animal. The initial triage includes taking a history from the owner, if possible, and assessing the vital signs of the animal. For either type of triage, the aim is to determine the risk to the animal and how immediately it needs veterinary attention.

Whether talking to the client over the phone or in person, remember that some owners will panic and exaggerate the problem and others will be very calm and underplay what is occurring. It is best to work with the thought in mind:

"If you are concerned, I am concerned".

It is vital that you remain calm. The person may be emotional, anxious, in shock or in freeze mode. If you are calm, you will not feed into the state they are in. Calmly lead them with questions to gather from them what the situation is and what they are seeing.

Don’t forget, if you are not confident triaging an animal, seek assistance.

Phone triage

“Owners can provide significant medical assistance at the scene of the injury. At the time of the initial telephone call, the owner should be questioned about the level of consciousness, breathing pattern, type of injury or toxicity, and even some aspects of the animal's perfusion (eg, gum color, level of responsiveness, heart rate). The first concern is for the safety of the owner.” (Linklater 2020)

Phone triage has different challenges compared to triaging in person because you are unable to read body language. Further information on how to communicate to get the best possible results will be explored next.

Remember not to diagnose. You can stress to the owner that it is essential for them to arrive ASAP as you are very concerned, but do not give a diagnosis. It is illegal for anyone that is not a vet to diagnose or suggest a diagnosis. However, you can provide first aid advice.

If you receive a phone call about a potential emergency or first aid situation, use the following procedure to collect all the vital information:

1. Ask the person’s name and the phone number from which they are calling. This is important in the event the call is cut off.
2. Ask about the nature of the emergency, including a very basic assessment of the physical condition and vital signs to determine the seriousness of the emergency:
   1. Is the animal breathing?
   2. Is the animal conscious?
3. If the answer is “no” to either of the previous questions, the animal needs to be brought to a vet immediately (life-threatening). If the animal is breathing and conscious, you may be able to spend a little more time on the phone and provide first aid advice.
4. If you think it is safe to spend more time on the phone, ask for the patient's name, breed 2020and more details about the incident. This will allow you to better prepare for their arrival as well as provide the owner with appropriate transport advice.
5. Before hanging up, ensure the person knows where the clinic is and ascertain how long it will take for them to arrive.

 

Watch

Watch the following video, ‘Client Communications: The Art of Phone Triage’ (4:50 min), for more information regarding the processes involved in phone triage.

 

Active listening skills

Communication skills are especially important to facilitate speedy but accurate triage, increasing the likelihood of the animal’s survival. The overarching communication skills are to:

• speak clearly and calmly when asking for help and seeking or giving information to other staff or clients in the workplace.
• use active listening and questioning techniques to gain information and to confirm that you have understood what you have heard.

When speaking to the owner or other people involved in the animal incident, remember to fully concentrate so that you understand the complete message by using active listening.

Examine and apply the following steps to active listening:

1. Pay attention – look at the speaker
2. Show that you are listening – nod, smile, say ‘yes’ occasionally
3. Provide feedback – reflect the words back to the person and ask questions to make sure you have the correct information
4. Defer judgement – give the person the time they need to finish conveying the information before offering advice
5. Respond appropriately – remain open, honest and respectful (Mind Tools Content Team n.d.).

Review the video 'Improve Your Listening Skills with Active Listening' (2:39 min) to further sharpen your listening skills.

Open and closed questioning

We have discussed active listening. Now it’s time to learn how to ask and use open-ended and closed-ended questions when seeking information from owners or witnesses, or assistance and advice from your supervisor or others.

Open-ended questions will give you more than just a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. The aim is to gain the information you need to make good first aid decisions. Ask appropriate questions from the outset of the incident to gain a short, sharp history of what has happened to the animal or to gain specific advice from your supervisor.

‘Funnel’ your questions by beginning with open-ended questions and then end with closed-ended questions. The closed-ended questions will help gain specific details or information that may not have been communicated through open questioning. Therefore, funnel your questions by asking broad open-ended questions. Finish off with closed (clarifying) questions.

Why are open-ended questions important?

• The conversation is controlled from the person asking to the person being questioned.
• They cause a person to think and reflect.
• Answers may include background information and details that would not have been evident otherwise.
• Can be used in conjunction with active listening – ask an open-ended question related to the information the participant has given you when they have finished talking.

Open-ended questions begin with words like ‘what, how, why, describe, tell me about or what do you think about’. Examples of open-ended questions are:

For gaining information during triage:

• What happened to Ramona the cat before you came into the vet today?
• What concerns do you have?
• Tell me about the behaviours you have seen Watermelon the guinea pig display.
• What other issues has your animal been experiencing?

Seeking advice or assistance:

• What is the best way to stop this bleeding?
• How can I best support this animal when I pick it up?
• What do I do next?

Examples of closed-ended questions could include:

• Has your dog been to us before for grooming?
• How old is your cat?
• Is the guinea pig urinating?
• When was the last time he ate something?

You will notice that the open-ended types of questions are broad, with an aim to gather information without directing the conversation too much. Open-ended questions allow the other person to provide as much detail as they feel is appropriate. There are no right or wrong open-ended questions, but always remember the aim and shape your questions to address your specific situation to get the animal in your care on the path to speedy recovery (Diaz et al. 2022).

Closed-ended questions are more specific, requiring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers or very specific information. Closed-ended questions are still very useful. You will gain clearer, more relevant results by collecting information through the use of open-ended questions at the start of the conversation, then clarifying and refining that information with closed-ended questions. (Diaz et al. 2022). The process of refining the information is called ‘funnelling’, as represented in the following figure.

If the conversation takes place on the phone, it is often more difficult to assess the non-verbal cues. Therefore, using these communication techniques will help you to check and confirm that you understand the information you are receiving.

Wild bird strike

Heath problem: Loss of consciousness from impact

Teagan works as the receptionist at Your Local Veterinary Clinic. One day at work she received the following phone call.

In this scenario, Teagan has assessed the situation to be a non-emergency. She has ensured the safety of both Andrew and the bird and given Andrew advice about how to provide basic first aid.