In this topic we will closely examine the scientific research around children’s development and behaviour, discussing how this applies to children today. You will understand the concepts of a varied range of theorists and how they must apply this to daily curriculum and practice.
By the end of this topic, you will understand:
- Why we need to examine theories and influences in early childhood
- A range of different developmental and behavioural theories, more precisely 10 different theories of development by 13 different theorists
- How to apply these theories in curriculum and practice.
Over the last century, professionals have theorised about human development, behaviour and learning. As research continues, some theories have been questioned as we have learnt more about the brain, the physiology, biology and psychology of a person, helping us to better understand why we do what we do. Research also helps us to understand why many children still develop and grow in typically similar ways around the world, with completely different experiences and opportunities, while for others, there are vast gaps and changes.
Every day we observe children we are informally researching, theories can also be simplified as facts learnt through observation, as we are trying to understand what it is they are thinking, how they attempt to communicate, how they are affected, what they are trying to achieve and how they will grow and learn. All in order to better support them to meet their full potential.
Watch
The following 5-minute video summarises the most important theories this topic will explain in detail. Watch the video to start thinking about how each theory and theorist offers a different lens into how children develop and into different aspects of development.
We use the basis of researchers and theorists, who in, most cases, have a background in psychiatry, psychology or education, as meaningful sources of intel or facts. They have gleaned years of qualitative and quantitative data found through research, on the complexities of children. This assists us to understand what we see every day when working with children, using it as a framework for childhood development.
It is important to note, that although we use this knowledge as a helpful baseline, many of the theories were developed years ago, and using current research alongside previous research, is helpful in considering more current knowledge that may have been changed over the years.
Most educators will find that certain theories make more sense to them, or connect to their own ideas and beliefs of how we develop and learn, though this may change over time with varying experiences and education.
As educators, we use these frameworks as a guideline to make professional decisions about:
- How we understand and interpret children, their behaviour, learning and development
- How to support their behaviour, learning and development
- How and why children differ and demonstrate their own unique development, behaviour and learning
- Social and cultural contexts in childhood and lifespan
- How to create the most suitable environments for children
- Concepts for critical reflection and pedagogical decision-making.
Arnold Gesell observed children from birth to adolescence and identified what we now know as the early developmental milestones, establishing norms for each age according to the developmental domains of motor, adaptive, language and personal social behaviours.
Gesell identified further that development occurred in a cycle, with certain points of equilibrium and disequilibrium.
Stages of equilibrium are marked by:
- smooth, calm behaviour
- practising skills already mastered
- more confident
- a period of stability and consolidated behaviour
- plateau in development
Stages of disequilibrium are marked by:
- unsettled, uneven behaviour
- learning new skills and abilities
- more anxious, stressed
- a period of struggle and breaking down behaviour
- quick time of growth and new development
Gesell stressed throughout the implementation of these milestones that children do, however, have individual trajectories and variables, growing and developing at their own pace. Gesell encouraged participants to use the milestones as a guideline.
How does this relate to us today?
As we discuss in developmental milestones, this is still utilised today by many professionals, as a guideline for the growth and development of children. Many of these professionals use the milestones as a basis for checklists and observation interpretations. In early childhood education, it supports us to understand a typical predicted development for children, to observe any concerns closely, and shows how to support the curriculum decisions of a service, such as planning and environmental provisions.
Check your understanding
Erik Erikson worked further on the research and findings of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic perspective, moving from Freud’s psychosexual instincts to a more psychodynamic approach based on the motivation driven from social and personal attributes created by the environment.
Watch
The following 5-minute video explains Erikson’s 8 stages of development, in which a healthy individual should pass through from birth to death. At each stage we encounter different needs, ask new questions and meet people who influence our behaviour and learning.
Erikson’s 8 psychosocial stages of development
| Stage | Basic conflict | Virtue | Description | Tasks/events |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infancy
(0-1 year) |
Trust vs mistrust | Hope | Trust (or mistrust) that basic need, such as nourishment and affection, will be met | Feeding, nurturing and comfort |
| Early childhood
(1-3 years) |
Autonomy vs shame/doubt | Will | Develop a sense of independence in many tasks | Self-help skills and independence; toileting, dressing |
| Play age
(3-6 years) |
Initiative vs guilt | Purpose | Take initiative on some activities – may develop guilt when unsuccessful or boundaries overstepped | Exploration, play and learning |
| School age
(7-11 years) |
Industry vs inferiority | Competence | Develop self-confidence in abilities when component or sense of inferiority when not | School and school-age activities |
| Adolescence (12-18 years) | Identity vs confusion | Fidelity | Experiment with and develop identify and roles | Identity of self in context of their world/social relationships |
| Early adulthood (19-29 years) | Intimacy vs isolation | Love | Establish intimacy and relationships with others | Intimate relationships |
| Middle age (30-64 years) | Generativity vs stagnation | Care | Contribute to society and be part of a family | Work life and parenthood |
| Old age
(65 onwards) |
Integrity vs despair | Wisdom | Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions | Reflection back on life lived |
How does this relate to us today?
The psychosocial theory is still utilised in most professional domains where children are involved today, giving insights into the motivations and stages required to reach mental and emotional thinking and henceforth developmental growth.
The stages are not typically based on ages, and it is believed that we all can travel from one stage to another, or even backwards at times. The stages provide maintenance in life as necessary, based on the resolution of a crisis that we may face. We may use this next to Gesell’s updated developmental milestones, when we consider what a child is trying to achieve in regard to their psychosocial development. This is useful when observing behaviours, understanding the emotional motivations, setting goals and reviewing outcomes for children.
Erikson's theory has been criticized for focusing so heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is prerequisite for the next crisis of development. His theory also focuses on the social expectations that are found in certain cultures, but not in all.
Check your understanding
Read the following statements and decide whether they are TRUE or FALSE:
Bandura worked parallel to studies previously implemented by theorists Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, in which they studied both operant and classical conditioning. They used reinforced reactions to a stimulus, e.g. when seeing (reaching for) a white rat, a loud noise would occur, conditioning a child to refuse to attempt to touch the rat. Bandura’s theory was not based on this reinforced action but the reinforcement of role modelling or imitation initiated with the children by the woman who played in the nursery with them.
Watch
The following 10-minute video explains the essence of Bandura’s social cognitive (or learning) theory:
How does this relate to use today?
Bandura’s research and theory emphasised the importance of role models in teaching and learning, this may be one of the most obvious results to observe in children. This may be evident as you watch an unknown child walk down the street beside their parent; noticing the similarities in mannerisms, the way the child navigates and manages the processes from safety to social conventions, to the way they speak to people in the street – which may be similar to the parent walking beside them. This concept can be utilised not only in education but is used in observing and understanding how children manage challenges or react to experiences; they may manage challenging situations with throwing items on the ground, or a shrug, stating they will “keep trying”.
These could be the result of how they see role models in their lives manage their own challenges. A common example of this, is a child’s reaction to certain animals, such as spiders, which of course can be individual to the child, or due to their own experiences with spiders, but often is a role-modelled response.
Observational learning is a significant component of Bandura’s social cognition theory. Badura's theory also argues that any form of observing and modelling human learning behaviours in a human society includes four (4) essential conditions:
- attention
- motivation
- reproduction
- retention.
Check your understanding
Read the following statements and decide whether they are TRUE or FALSE:
Piaget concluded, through years of research, that his evidence pointed towards children learning more by ‘doing’, and in doing these children were motivated, without any need of reward. Through his research on epistemological development (the development of the child’s knowledge base), he believed the thinking and reasoning of children altered over time, as they were predisposed to organise their thoughts, finding new ways to adapt to change and information, which alters in stages as we age. He determined that most people would reach the highest level of his theory, though at their own pace and timing – dependent largely on their life experiences. He also theorised about how children build ideas, or learn on top of – or ‘scaffolded’ from, previous knowledge, including:
- Schemas: The actions accompanied with objects, also known as 'play schemas'. These can be utilised with varying objects in various places and situations, where the same thought process remains. E.g. picking up a ball and throwing it into a box, then picking up a beanbag and throwing that into a tin. Over time, children reflect on the experiences and realise that different objects behave differently if they are being thrown: some are heavier, some bounce back, etc. Piaget developed typical patterns of schema observed in three-year-olds and under to understand how learning happens in stages and that children, as they grow, they progress to higher levels.
- Connecting involves going objects together. It might involve taping things together, connecting blocks or lego or joining train tracks. This can mean a process of connection then disconnection also, such as building a castle then knocking it over.as we see them.
- Transforming involves changing/ transforming the state of something. It involves a visual transformation, such as mixing, freezing, drying a substance. Some examples may include a child who loves to wash their hands with soap over and over again, or the child that adds chalk to a cup of water.
- Transporting involves moving objects from one place to another. A child may like to move objects using baskets, wheelbarrows, buckets, pockets, boxes or their hands.
- Trajectory involves dropping, throwing, kicking, swinging items; perhaps the most problematic schema of them all. A child experiencing this schema may drop their food at the table, throw toys, kick objects or people, enjoy swinging, or dropping things into containers.
- Positioning involves lining up toys, position things into order, ordering books, turning cups upside down or obsessing over items being in an exact place.
- Enveloping is a highly evident schema; involving the children covering themselves or objects. This might look like wrapping toys in paper, laying fabric on top of dolls, playing peek-a-boo with silks, climbing into boxes or kitchen drawers, or hiding your keys in a cupboard.
- Enclosing involves drawing or creating a barrier or enclosure. It may involve connecting items to build a fence or drawing circles around objects. At dinner time, this might look like moving food to the edge of the plate.
- Rotation involves spinning, twisting, rolling or turning. Children exploring this schema are generally attracted to and may benefit from things with wheels, spinning, playing ring-a-rosey, riding a bike in circles or using screwdrivers.
- Assimilation: The cognitive process of managing and organising new information, and building in new knowledge, or schemas, to extend on our understanding of the world. E.g. a child has learnt what a dog is, they then may build on this knowledge by learning that dogs also bark and have four legs. This may be considered regarding change of thinking. Also, you may have a gentle dog, and a child, at times, roughly plays with it. The child may meet another dog, and plays with that dog in the same way – but the dog snaps at the child, teaching the child that not all dogs are friendly, or like how he plays.
Piaget's four (4) stages of development
| STAGE | AGE | REQUIRED OUTCOME | DESCRIPTION |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor | Birth to 18-24 months old | Object permanence | Learning is through physical experience with the environment and self. No use of symbols or symbolic elements. |
| Preoperational | 2-7 years old | Symbolic thought | The development of memory and imagination in play. Egocentric by nature. The use of objects to connect to language, memory, modelling and individual meanings. An example of the thinking is the classic two balls experiment, you give a child two balls of equal size and weight, roll one into a long sausage, and the child will think the sausage is bigger due to its form. |
| Concrete operational | 7-11 years old | Operation thought | Beginning to understand the viewpoints, thoughts, feelings and needs of others. Using logical and methodical manipulation of symbols, they begin to problem-solve in their head. Ideally, at this point, working towards the outcome of skills needed to work out problems, without having to physically encounter them. |
| Formal operational | Adolescence to adulthood | Abstract concepts | Able to make a hypothesis. Use symbols, abstract concepts and connect relationships, using schemas and multiple variables. |
Watch
The following 7-minute video explains the different stages of Piaget’s cognitive development theory:
Check your understanding
Watch
The following half-a-minute video, the ‘2 Clay Balls Experiment’ demonstrates the thinking of a child at the concrete operational stage:
Case Study
Egocentrism vs SchemaJack, a 4-year-old boy, is playing with his toy cars in the living room. His younger sister, Emma, who is 2-year-old, enters the room and starts playing with a toy block set on the floor nearby. Jack becomes fascinated with Emma's colourful blocks and decides to join her in playing with them. However, as he starts to interact with the blocks, he accidentally knocks over Emma's tower of blocks, causing them to scatter across the floor.
At this moment, Jack demonstrates egocentrism by being unable to fully understand Emma's perspective. Instead of recognizing that Emma might feel upset or frustrated about her tower being knocked down, Jack quickly moves on to play with another toy car, seemingly unaffected by the incident. He does not consider the impact of his actions on his sister's play or emotions.
On the other hand, schema comes into play as Jack attempts to incorporate the new information about the colourful blocks into his existing knowledge about toys. His schema for blocks is likely based on building towers and structures. When he sees Emma's blocks, he instinctively assumes that they are meant for building towers like the ones he creates with his toy blocks. Consequently, his schema guides his actions, leading him to interact with the blocks in a way that aligns with his pre-existing understanding of blocks as building materials.
In this scenario, Jack's egocentrism hinders his ability to empathize with his sister's feelings, while his schema influences his interactions with the new toys he encounters. These aspects of cognitive development are both significant factors in shaping how children perceive and interact with the world around them.
Many have compared Piaget and Vygotsky, as they have similarities but also differences. Vygotsky believed in the involvement of the social world in human development, but also genetic factors and learnt skills. He researched and theorised about the comparisons of how we learn in isolation compared to with others, or more knowledgeable others, and the impact that had on our learning and development. He connected learning largely to social, community and cultural contexts, hence why Vygotsky’s theories are often referred to as sociocultural cognitive theories or social constructivism, where the cognitive functions are the products of social interactions. He stated that these concepts were how we organised and made meaning from information.
Vygotsky also developed the concepts of internalisation and externalisation, where a child reconstructs internally, upon reflection, an experience they have had externally within their world. Operations, social interactions and culture were all considered to be processed this way. He referred to the term ‘scaffolding’ when he considered the building of acquired knowledge – i.e. a foundation of knowledge upon which a child builds as they learn more.
Vygotsky believed that language was a separate higher-order function to thinking, or thought, at birth, and they merged together by around three years old, as the child internalised speech (private speech) before and during, externalisation. He believed children used this as a self-guidance strategy for internal collaboration. A child’s speech is as important as the role of action in attaining the goal. Children not only speak about what they are doing; their speech and actions are one and the same complex psychological function, directed toward the solution of the problem at hand.
Watch
The following 11-minute video explains Vygotsky’s cognitive development in social relationships:
Zone of proximal development
As Vygotsky believed that development and learning occurred socially, he developed the Zone of Proximal Development to explain how children’s learning base can be scaffolded by the more knowledgeable other (MKO), compared to achievable growth alone.
Watch
The following 4-minute video explains what scaffolding is and how educators can scaffold children’s skills and knowledge:
Tools of the mind
Vygotsky developed the concept of ‘tools of the mind’ to explain how children learnt to use systems to aid their thinking and cognitive processes. These tools could be either physical or mental, and, of course, cultural and social.
Physical tools may include ways of using a particular object according to cultural and social contexts, whereas mental tools are learnt in the early years from a child’s environment, particularly if they are memorable and repeated many times.
Through this, they begin to build and master mental tools for processing, remembering, thinking and understanding, as well as reusing. They embrace them in a more methodical, intentional and purposeful manner to function in childhood, school and throughout life.
Observation
Watch the following observation of children building with blocks. Consider the ‘tools’ each child uses in order to build their ideal towers. Consider the safety and construction elements involved in their processes from one child to another. Reflect on the impacts of the comments from others while the children are building and how this may add to their thinking system and external actions.Bruner was influenced by the work of Vygotsky and developed further concepts around the more knowledgeable other (MKO). He believed that when children start to learn new concepts, they need help from teachers and other adults through active support. He also discussed how, like a building, scaffolding is required at first, to support the structure of learning, but, as independence and skills develop, less support will be needed, until eventually none will be required.
Activity
Think about the typical steps you observe when a child learns to use scissors, noting where support, supervision and unaided action occur.
The process of a child learning to use scissors typically involves several steps, with varying levels of support, supervision, and unaided action. Here is a general outline of the progression:
- Introduction to scissors: A child is introduced to child-safe scissors by an adult, such as a parent or teacher. The adult demonstrates how to hold and use the scissors safely, providing verbal instructions and modeling the correct hand positioning.
- Guided practice: The child receives guided practice under close supervision. The adult assists the child in holding the scissors properly and guides their hand movements. The child is encouraged to practice cutting simple and straight lines on thick paper or lightweight cardboard.
- Increasing independence: As the child gains confidence and demonstrates safe scissor use, the adult gradually reduces direct support and allows the child more independence. The child is encouraged to cut along more intricate lines or simple shapes, such as circles or squares, with minimal assistance.
- Fine motor skill development: During this stage, the child's fine motor skills are improving as they gain better control over their hand movements and coordination. The child practices cutting various shapes and patterns, which may include wavy lines, zigzags, and curves.
- Unaided action: The child reaches a level of proficiency where they can use scissors independently, without constant supervision or guidance from an adult. The child is now capable of cutting along straight and curved lines, creating basic shapes, and engaging in simple arts and crafts activities.
- Advanced cutting skills: With continued practice and development, the child refines their scissor skills, cutting more complex shapes and intricate designs. The child becomes capable of using scissors for more creative and artistic projects, such as making paper collages or cutting out specific images.
Throughout this learning process, it's essential for adults to provide a safe environment, offer positive reinforcement, and monitor the child's progress. Supervision is especially crucial during the early stages to prevent accidents and ensure the child develops proper scissor safety habits. As the child gains proficiency, they gradually transition from supported practice to unaided action, leading to greater independence and confidence in using scissors.
Activity
The Heinz dilemma
Heinz’s wife was dying from a peculiar type of cancer, and the doctors said a new drug might be able to save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist and Heinz tried desperately to buy some.
However, the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and it was much more than Heinz could afford.
Even after help from family and friends, Heinz could only raise a fraction of the cost for the drug. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying, and asked if he could have the drug for a cheaper price, or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, and he was wondering what he should do.
Should he steal the drug and face the consequences? Or should he go scot-free?
Should he obey the law and not steal the drug, only to let his wife die?
Depending on your answer, you will fall into one of the categories of Kohlberg’s moral development.
Lawrence Kohlberg was heavily influenced by Piaget’s work on cognitive development, connecting to the cognitive thinking process regarding moral reasoning abilities in children.
Children, he found, moved from behaviours and thinking, based on external factors, like punishment or shame, through stages, eventually behaving through moral reasoning of why an action is appropriate, or not. in society.
They also moved through the idea we know today as ‘when no-one is watching’, and their own individual thoughts and reasons, including multiple factors, in order to make a moral decision. We become more morally superior thinkers as humans. However, not necessarily more worthy as we develop.
The theory includes three (3) levels and six (6) stages, including:
| LEVEL | AGE | STAGE | DESCRIPTOR | THINKING |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PRE CONVENTIONAL (Birth to 6 years) | Infancy | Punishment and obedience |
|
“Will I get in trouble?” |
| Preschool | Individualism, purpose, and exchange |
|
“Why should I?” “If I do this, I will get a lolly.” | |
| CONVENTIONAL (7-11 years) | School | Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity |
|
“Everyone else is doing this and the rules say I should”. |
| Social system and conscience |
|
“I feel like I should do this because…” | ||
| POST CONVENTIONAL (over 11 years) | Adolescence to adulthood | Social contract, or utility, and individual rights |
|
“John feels differently to me, however, the law says this, and I should conform because it is the right thing to do.” |
| Adulthood | Universal ethical principles |
|
“This rule conflicts with the rights for freedom, I don’t believe this should be the case.” |
Reflection
Refer back to the Heinz dilemma. Using the table information, consider your response and where it falls within the table and stage of moral development.
Maslow focused his work on the mental health of humans, and researched human needs or motivations in order to reach self-actualisation, a place where you were capable of meeting your full potential. He believed, and incorporated, some concepts previously researched within this model, including the environmental impacts, and internal and intrinsic aspects of behaviours (why they occur).
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs may be one of the most utilised human theories in the world today, with health, education and many other workplaces and industries utilising this model to better understand the motivations of others and self.
There are five (5) levels within the hierarchy system, with each level needing to be satisfactorily achieved before moving up to the next.
- Self actualisation is the holy grail of the hierarchy system; as humans, the goal is to reach a point where we feel fulfilled, proud, or that we have lived up to our potential, or what we feel we were meant to do. Maslow stated that many at the point of esteem may begin to feel restless, and search for more; however, he believed that this last stage was not always, or even often, achieved in society.
- The second last level is esteem, which is based on the positive feelings about oneself – our self-concept and identity, or ‘feeling good about who we are and about ourselves’. This also includes self-respect, how others see us, if we feel valued by others, and our contributions to society, or by society.
- Love and belonging are the third tier. As an infant, this would mould itself around the importance of attachment in the early years, and ongoing social interactions, nurturing, friendship and love.
- The next level is safety, based on our need to feel safe in our world – supported by carers, shelter, protection, and trusting, consistent and predictable care.
- The bottom level of physiological needs is considered the base, and, in order to build on this, there needs to be a strong foundation. The base includes the basic needs of human survival, such as homeostasis, which is essentially the food, drink, sleep, hormones, temperature, heart rate, and regulation, stabilising the internal state needed to survive.
Watch
The following 3-minute video explains Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
Check your understanding
For each level, think of events or influences that could develop or minimise the achievement of the level. How could we support each level in children?
- Physiological needs: Influences that could minimize achievement: Lack of access to nutritious food, clean water, and safe shelter. Exposure to physical neglect or abuse. Ways to support: Ensure children have regular and healthy meals, access to clean water, and a safe and comfortable living environment. Address any issues of neglect or abuse promptly and provide appropriate care and support.
- Safety needs: Influences that could minimize achievement: Exposure to violence, unstable home environment, or unsafe neighborhood. Inconsistent or unreliable caregivers. Ways to support: Create a secure and stable environment for children. Provide consistent and dependable caregivers who prioritize their safety and well-being. Teach them about personal safety and boundaries.
- Love and belongingness: Influences that could minimize achievement: Social isolation, lack of positive relationships with family or peers, experiencing rejection or bullying. Ways to support: Encourage positive social interactions with family and peers. Create a nurturing and supportive environment where children feel loved and accepted. Address any issues of social exclusion or bullying promptly.
- Esteem needs: Influences that could minimize achievement: Constant criticism or belittlement, comparison with others, lack of recognition for achievements. Ways to support: Offer praise and encouragement for children's efforts and accomplishments. Focus on their strengths and provide opportunities for personal growth and development. Avoid overly comparing them with others.
- Self-actualization: Influences that could minimize achievement: Restricted opportunities for personal growth and exploration, lack of support for pursuing interests and passions. Ways to support: Encourage children to explore their interests, talents, and passions. Provide opportunities for learning and self-discovery. Be supportive of their aspirations and help them set realistic goals. Supporting each level of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in children requires creating a safe, loving, and nurturing environment. Adults, including parents and teachers, play a crucial role in providing the necessary support and resources for children to thrive and reach their full potential in each stage of development.
Theory of mind is a term used to explain the awareness a person has over their own thoughts and ideas and the knowledge that this may vary from that of others. A person will also use signals and cues to pick up and interpret what others might be thinking or feeling. This develops in children at around 3–6 years old in a fairly typical pattern; from first having no concept that anyone has different thoughts or feelings than their own, to understanding that they are a different person to others – e.g. when they see their reflection in a shop window, they know it is themselves not another child; to understanding that others have different knowledge, feelings and ideas to them.
Did you know?
According to ToM research, children under the age of 3 typically answer questions on the theory of mind tasks incorrectly. By the time many children reach 4 years, they are able to understand that others may hold false beliefs about objects, people, or situations. A common ToM test involves a false-belief task (sometimes referred to as the "smarties task" and the "Sally-Anne task").Watch
The following 6-minute video explains the theory of mind:
Check your understanding
Howard Gardner developed seven spheres of intelligence, demonstrating that each individual had one or more of these strengths, in which they learnt best. He later added another intelligence, naturalistic, to make the eight (8) spheres. He also has an interest in which side of the brain is used within each intellectual sphere and its connection with that person.
Eight (8) spheres of intelligence
- Linguistic intelligence - is a personal sensitivity to spoken and written language and the use of language to achieve your goals. Linguistics may use poetry, interpersonal skills (i.e. discussions), journal writing, reading, and are often skilled at speaking more than one language.
- Musical intelligence - may be reflected in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. The heights of musical intelligence are achieved in composition with the pitch and rhythm being the most important.
- Logical/Mathematical intelligence - is ‘the ability to study problems, to carry out mathematical operations logically and analytically, and to conduct scientific investigations.’ Gardner stated that both logic and abstract thinking is required here for understanding statements and also mathematics, which is highly abstract.
- Spatial intelligence - is the recognition of visual patterns of various sizes, such as pictures and imagery. Those with spatial intelligence have 3-D thinking, and can mentally and physically navigate environments, or follow directions well. They have the complex imaginations and mental imagery needed for solving particular problems.
- Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence - is the use of the whole body, or parts of the body, in problemsolving or creation. This may include dancers, athletes and other physical performers, requiring abstract and complex forms of representation of movements.
- Intrapersonal intelligence - is the use of the inner self to make sound decisions. Those with intrapersonal intelligence have an inner working model of critical self-reflection that they use to collaborate ideas, thoughts and feelings.
- Interpersonal intelligence - understands the inner workings and motivations of others, and is skilled at working effectively with them. While the intrapersonal space has become increasing important in modern Western societies, it is the interpersonal, which typically characterises traditional cultures.
- Naturistic intelligence - As a connector with an affinity to nature and the natural elements, the naturistic has a sensitivity, interest and deep respect for living things and organisms of the earth. “Nature smart” people like to be outside or at least see the outdoors and nature, feeling more alive the closer they are to life and the natural environment.
Check your understanding
Test yourself
You may like to find out your ‘smart’ by taking a multiple intelligence quiz online. Click here to take the ‘Multiple intelligence and learning style test’.Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological systems theory, again, is another theory that has supported those who have, or work with, children to better understand how they develop, especially in regard to growing within, and as a part of, their society. The ecological model took into account the environments and systems of a human dwelling, the relationships between individuals and these systems, and even the relationships between the systems themselves. He was interested in how the changes in the environment impacted on humans who live and grow there.
Bronfenbrenner's model
The 2007 adapted model has five (5) sections:
- Microsystems: The person has direct involvement in their microsystems and it is the closest system to them, including school, childcare, family, neighbourhood, parenting factors and communities
- Mesosytem: This is the connection of the systems, for example the child’s parent and teacher meet to have a discussion.
- Exosystem: Is the link between two settings, a setting where the parent is directly involved, but not the child, e.g. the mother’s workplace, yet it will ultimately have influence on the child.
- Macrosystem: These are the cultural contexts of the person, such as government and politics, ideologies, society, economics and the country, including nationality.
- Chronosystem: The timeline for which life events or sociohistorical events, or conditions, occur, such as the impact of divorce on the household (including what age a child is when this occurs), war or the development of various human rights. E.g., what would life have been like – and the impacts – for a female in the 1900s, compared to the 2000s; and how would this impact a household.
You can also see the adapted version for the Victorian early years learning and development framework (VEYLDF) on page 5.
Watch
The following 6-minute video explains Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system:
Check your understanding
Dreikurs studied the behaviour of humans, with a particular interest in ‘misbehaviour’. He believed these behaviours occur due to two reasons. Either a child’s basic needs were not being met, or, due to social pressures. He believed in the elements of belonging, feeling valued, community, respect and equality, stating that these principles were needed to support children and their behaviour.
He determined that children had four goals when mistaken behaviour was evident:
- Natural consequences: Consequences that occur without the intervention of the adult, such as "If you leave your bike in the street, it may be stolen."
- Logical consequences: They are known reactions (consequences) to inappropriate action
Case Study
Tina, three years old
Tina is playing with her two peers Alana and Georgia in the sandpit, Alana takes the pink castle mould and begins to fill it with sand. “Hey, I was using the pink one, give it back!” Tina shouts. “No, I’m using it, use the other one. “No”. “C’mon, Georgia, let’s go play on the swings”, they then run away from Alana to play on the swings.
Question: Which mistaken behaviour may be evident here?
When Tina becomes upset that Alana is using the pink castle mould, she reacts by shouting and demanding that Alana give it back. However, when Alana refuses to comply, Tina and Georgia decide to run away from Alana and play elsewhere. This running away can be seen as a form of revenge, where Tina is trying to get back at Alana by excluding her from the play and seeking a sense of power or control in the situation.
It is essential to understand these mistaken behaviours to help children develop more positive and socially appropriate ways of interacting and coping with their emotions and conflicts.
Daneel, two years old
Daneel walks over to the painting easel and picks up a brush, “don’t forget to put a smock on Daneel so that you don’t get paint on yourself”, the educator says. Daneel shakes her head and continues to paint. Once the educator gets to her, she already has red paint on her yellow dress. “Oh no, my dress!” she states in surprise. She looks at the educator, “I didn’t wear the smock”.
Question 1: Which mistaken behaviour may be evident here?
The mistaken behaviour observed with Daneel is "avoidance." In Dreikurs' theory of mistaken behaviour, avoidance refers to a pattern where a child tries to escape or avoid a situation or task that they perceive as challenging or uncomfortable. In the given scenario, when the educator reminds Daneel to wear a smock while painting to avoid getting paint on herself, Daneel shakes her head and continues to paint without the smock. This behaviour indicates that Daneel is attempting to avoid wearing the smock, even though it would protect her clothes from getting stained.
Question 2: Which consequence occurs here?
The consequence that occurs here is natural consequences. Natural consequences are the results or outcomes that naturally follow a behaviour or action without any intervention or enforcement from others. In the given scenario, Daneel chose not to wear the smock while painting, despite the educator's reminder. As a natural consequence of her decision, she ended up getting red paint on her yellow dress.
The educator did not enforce any punishment or impose a consequence on Daneel for not wearing the smock; instead, Daneel experienced the natural consequence of her choice. The natural consequence of getting paint on her dress serves as a valuable learning experience for Daneel, as it helps her understand the importance of following instructions and taking precautions when engaging in certain activities like painting.
Check your understanding
Use the following questions to check your knowledge. You can check the correct answer by clicking on the 'Answer' button:
- How do we use theories and influences in early childhood settings?
- To help educators understand what we observe in children every day and why this occurs
- To understand and interpret children, their behaviour, learning and development
- How to support their behaviour, learning and development
- How and why children differ and demonstrate their own unique development, behaviour and learning
- Social and cultural contexts in childhood and lifespan
- How to create the most suitable environments for children
- Concepts for critical reflection and pedagogical decision-making.
- How do we use a version of Gesell’s maturation theory today, and what do we call this?
Developmental milestones
- Which theories cover human development as a whole, not only childhood development?
- Erikson’s psychosocial theory
- Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs
- Piaget’s cognitive theory
- Vygotsky’s cognitive theories
- Kohlberg’s moral development
- Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory
- What is equilibrium, and why do we need it?
Piaget informed that children needed the cognitive balance of new information scaffolded upon old knowledge using schemas to help them understand and process the information to make sense to the individual child in order for the new information to be processed successfully.
- How do children explore initiative vs. guilt?
Through exploration, play and learning
- What is the difference between ‘tools of the mind’ and ‘Theory of mind (ToM)?
Tools of the mind are mental tools used for processing, remembering, thinking, understanding and reusing information, where theory of mind is the cognitive process of understanding or being aware of others, and they have their own perspectives, thoughts, ideas and knowledge that may vary from the child and other peers, this helps them to read the cues of others and understand their behaviours and actions.
- Which of Bronfenbrenner’s systems would a child’s early childhood service reside within?
Microsystem
- If a child’s primary ‘intelligence’ was naturalistic, how might you support their learning?
Engagement and exploration in the natural world and the outdoors, using natural materials, investigating and inquiry in flora, fauna or any of nature’s wonders and learning outdoors, next to large windows to the natural world, etc.
