The rapid growth in technology has seen an evolution in how instructional and learning design is applied due to the nature of the tools available and to a shift in how learners are viewed. The original theories and models that influenced early learning design originated in the mid to late 20th century and were heavily focused on the content - knowledge acquisition and skills development.
More recent approaches to learning design, such as social constructivism, place a greater emphasis on the learner, their journey, and the context in which the learning is taking place.
the major milestones in the evolution of learning design.
Social constructivism
Social constructivism (also known as social learning theory) is a learning schema based on the foundations that new knowledge is:
- constructed by the learner;
- social in nature; and
- built on prior knowledge.
Within the constructivist schema, learning should be authentic and should create the conditions for the learner to acquire knowledge through real-world learning experiences and problem-solving opportunities. Through this, the learning can be seen as an active process of engagement (Elliott et al., 2000). This schema, with its focus heavily on the learner, has influenced the trajectory of learning design.
This module will outline some specific theories and models that have been influential in instructional and learning design.
Originally conceived in 1956 as a way for universities to ensure that test items shared the same educational objectives, Benjamin Bloom (then an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago), along with collaborators Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill and David Krathwohl devised a framework for categorising educational goals.
The "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives" is now more familiarly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy and many generations of teachers and instructors have applied this framework to learning at all levels from kindergarten through to university.
The framework outlines six categories for learning that represent a hierarchical order of steps in the learning journey from simple to concrete and from concrete to abstract which is known as the cognitive domain. Each category outlines a number of relevant actions that the learner is expected to gain at that point in their learning.
Original Taxonomy categories
The original Taxonomy provided definitions in six steps, or categories, with each step building from the previous one. Gaining the most from the learning relies on the learner properly grasping a category before moving to the next.
The six major categories were:
Revised Taxonomy categories
These categories have since been revised, renamed and simplified to form the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Select each heading to view details for each revised category.
The learning journey begins with retrieval of relevant knowledge from long-term memory.
Some relevant actions include:
- define;
- identify;
- illustrate;
- list;
- recall; and
- recognise.
The second step involves determining the meaning of instructional communication in oral, written and graphical formats using prior learning to underpin the new knowledge.
Some relevant actions include:
- classify;
- explain;
- infer;
- interpret;
- restate; and
- summarise.
Next, the learner uses the newly-acquired knowledge to demonstrate an action or use a procedure in a controlled setting.
Some relevant actions include:
- choose;
- demonstrate;
- develop;
- illustrate;
- prepare; and
- use.
Analysis takes place through the breaking down of new material into parts in order to distinguish how the parts relate to each other and the overall structure.
Some relevant actions include:
- apply;
- attribute;
- classify;
- compare;
- differentiate; and
- organise.
The evaluation step involves the learner making judgements about the learning based on criteria and standards.
Some relevant actions include:
- appraise;
- compare;
- formulate;
- hypothesise;
- judge; and
- reframe.
The last step of the taxonomy involves the learner combining all elements to form a new concept or create an original product.
Some relevant actions include:
- construct;
- design;
- develop;
- invent;
- modify; and
- produce.
Reflection Point
Watch the video by Sprouts to get an idea of how Bloom's taxonomy can help when thinking about the learning process.
Consider how the steps outlined could be applied to writing learning outcomes and designing an eLearning unit.
Example
Below is an example of how the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy can be leveraged to assist in writing learning outcomes. The revision redefines the cognitive domain of the original taxonomy into the intersection of the Cognitive Process Dimension and the Knowledge Dimension.
Learning outcomes will be discussed more in the Identify and develop learning outcomes section, but for now, each of the cards illustrate an example of a learning outcome that blends the dimensions (Iowa State University, 2012).
Content adapted from Iowa State University (2012)
Educational psychologist Robert Gagné proposed a two-step learning approach called "The Conditions of Learning", first published in 1965. Gagné’s approach focuses on the internal and external conditions that affect learning and the instruction events that must occur for learning to be effective.
Step 1: The conditions of learning
When creating a new learning piece, the first step is to identify the conditions that must be in place for knowledge absorption and retention.
Gagné’s "conditions of learning" are the internal and external cognitive factors that affect people during their learning journey.
- Internal conditions relate to the learner’s prior knowledge.
- External conditions include the learning environment, the method of instruction and the style of instruction.
For learning to be effective, both the internal and the external conditions need to be considered.
Step 2: The nine events of instruction
The nine "events of instruction" are the second step in Gagné’s learning approach. These nine actions can assist designers to create engaging, appropriate and effective learning.
The ADDIE model was developed in the 1970s as a collaborative production between a branch of the U.S. military and the Center for Educational Technology at Florida State University. This collaboration produced the Interservice Procedures for Instructional Systems Development (IPISD), intended for the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps and ultimately evolved into the ADDIE model we know today (Molenda, 2003).
ADDIE is an acronym representing Analyse, Design, Develop, Implement and Evaluate and is an instructional systems design (ISD) model and most other ISD models developed since are adaptations of ADDIE.
The simplicity of the ADDIE model makes it a popular starting point for learning designers. The model can be easily aligned with business objectives as each phase contains an outcome that neatly flows into the next phase.
The ADDIE model
Restrictions of ADDIE
Over the years, flaws in the ADDIE model have led to other educators revising and honing the model. It was identified that the model is restrictive when learning relies on user-generated content or where learning outcomes do not have a predetermined end state.
As such, ADDIE is best used for learning that requires little creative thinking or abstract outcomes.
Select each heading below to take a closer look at each phase of ADDIE.
In the analysis phase, training needs are addressed. A thorough assessment of requirements is vital at this stage to ensure that the learning goals and objectives are clear and that any potential issues can be identified.
This phase captures:
- audience;
- learning constraints;
- delivery options;
- pedagogical considerations; and
- project completion timeline.
At the design phase, decisions are made in relation to the method of learning – subject matter analysis, content, exercises, assessments (summative/formative), media, visual design, instructional style and technical considerations.
This phase provides specific details for the learning in a logical and methodical manner.
This phase focuses on:
- documentation for the project’s design strategy;
- storyboard creation;
- user interface design;
- prototype creation; and
- graphic design.
The development phase involves developers/programmers assembling the content and creating assets as decided at the design phase.
After the development of assets, tests are performed and the project is reviewed and revised based on feedback from internal reviewers and/or user experience testers.
Implementation includes creation of training procedures that covers the course curriculum, learning outcomes, method of delivery and testing procedures.
If there are assets such as books, equipment, tools and software required, or if logins and registration are needed, this will be handled during this phase. Any Learning Management System (LMS) or website hosting requirements will also be managed during this phase.
After the learning is delivered, the client/learner will provide feedback based on the experience of their own users. Any issues and edits are communicated during this phase and the course can be changed accordingly.
A survey at the end of a course is a good idea to allow learners to evaluate what they liked and disliked about the course content as well as how the course was presented. Feedback is valuable as a method of improvement.
M. David Merrill (Professor in the Department of Instructional Technology at Utah State University) conducted research into existing learning design theories as a way to identify a basic method and the common traits of learning.
As a result of his research, Merrill created the 'First Principles of Instruction'. Merrill’s principles form the foundation of good learning and can be applied to all types and styles of learning.
Merrill's principles in practice
Merrill’s principles are applied in nature and they emphasise that learning is best promoted in the learner when the following conditions are met.
- Learners are engaged in solving real-world problems.
- Existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge.
- New knowledge is demonstrated to the learner.
- New knowledge is applied by the learner.
- New knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world.
Principles:
As its name suggests, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) has its basis in ensuring that everyone is provided with an equal opportunity for learning and that multiple ways of learning are encouraged.
UDL provides guidance for the creation of learning outcomes, resources and assessments that are suitable for all people. It is particularly concerned with ensuring that people with disability, people from diverse cultural and socio-economic backgrounds, mature learners and international students have the same opportunities for learning.
Benefits of UDL
UDL recognises that there is no "one-size-fits-all" for learning, in the same way that there is not just one type of learner. It embraces variability and uses a combination of approaches in order to fully engage students and encourage critical thinking.
For trainers, UDL is ideal in meeting the needs for diverse learners through a variety of instructional formats, tools and technologies.
There are three core principles of UDL that guide the design of learning outcomes, resources, formative and summative assessment and teaching methods.
Engagement
Provide opportunities that stimulate motivation and enthusiasm for learning by engaging learners through their interests.
Representation
Present learners with multiple ways to obtain information, cement their understanding and enhance their knowledge.
Action and expression
Offer multiple ways for learners to demonstrate their skills and knowledge to boost creativity and enable sharing.
UDL in practice
Reflection Point
Watch the TEDx talk by Michael Allen Nesmith, who is a deaf and native American Sign Language speaker and works as a creative designer for Amazon. Select the play button to start.
- Can you think of other physical design features in the world, like the door handle example from the video, that could have emerged from a universal design perspective?
- How can the design discussions from this video be adapted to the eLearning context?
This module covered some of the useful learning theories that can assist when deciding how to create the learning environment and structure the learning material. No matter which learning design theory is selected to underpin the learning process, the most important consideration is always the learner’s experience.
In the next module, we will delve deeper into the learning design process and how some of the theoretical ideas can be applied.
Complete the knowledge checks below to assess your understanding.
Knowledge Check
>
