In this section you will learn about:
- The development of major counselling approaches and theories.
- The key principles and practices of major counselling approaches.
Supplementary materials relevant to this section:
- Reading A – An Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy
- Reading B – Narrative Therapy
At this point of your Diploma, you have learned about a number of different theories that inform the work of counsellors and how a counsellor’s selection of techniques and interventions is generally informed by their theoretical approach to counselling. Part of counsellor training and development involves learning about different approaches to counselling so that a counsellor can understand which approach (or approaches) best fits with their own personality, preferences, beliefs, and values. To do so, counsellors in training must first familiarise themselves with the major approaches to therapeutic practice. Hence, the next four modules of your Diploma are designed to provide you with an introduction to the major counselling approaches used in modern counselling practice. We will begin by exploring the historical development of key counselling approaches.
There are many different types, approaches, and theories of counselling which are constantly evolving and changing; new ones are also emerging. One of the reasons for the continual development and evolution of counselling practice is that theories and approaches emerge in response to social, political and technological change at the time.
Some of the key shifts in emphasis that have occurred include the assimilation of ideas and practices from non-Western cultural traditions, the impact of neoliberal economic policies, the growing influence of research findings, and the increasingly technologized nature of much contemporary practice.
(McLeod, 2019, p. 328)
History of counselling psychology
The following video provides a brief history of counselling.
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The psychodynamic approach is widely regarded as an influential major theoretical force that informs the fields of contemporary counselling and psychology. You may recall learning briefly about this approach in CHCCSL004 Research and apply personality and development theories. Following the development of psychodynamic approach, a number of alternative counselling approaches evolved in the twentieth century, including behavioural approaches, humanistic approaches, and post-modern approaches. The chronological development of these approaches is depicted in the following diagram.
Of course, it is important to note that this diagram does not depict every single counselling approach that was developed in the 20th century. Unfortunately, it would not be feasible to provide a complete account of all counselling theories that have been developed in this brief module. Instead, the diagram focuses on the key theories and approaches that have been most influential on modern counselling in Australia. In the remainder of this section, we will briefly explore each of these key approaches.
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Reading A – An Introduction to Counselling and Psychotherapy
Reading A provides a good, comprehensive overview of a larger range of counselling approaches and theories and will give you a fuller appreciation of the range of counselling approaches and their development.
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The cognitive behavioural approaches are distinct for their emphasis on “translating insights into behavioural actions” (Corey, 2017, p. 8) – something observable and tangible. There is a variety of therapeutic approaches that fall under the umbrella of cognitive behavioural approaches; nevertheless, it is generally considered that these approaches evolved in three ‘waves’.
The ‘first wave’ of behavioural therapy focused primarily on overt behavioural change by applying operant and classical conditioning principles (discussed extensively in CHCCSL005 Research and apply learning theories.) Despite its effectiveness and success, behaviourism declined in popularity primarily due to its inability to account for unobservable mental processes such as language, beliefs, imagery, problem-solving, and reasoning. There was a backlash against the perceived conceptualisation of people as merely rats responding robotically to external stimuli. This dissatisfaction developed into a focus on internal processes known as the ‘cognitive revolution’.
During the 1970s, the ‘cognitive revolution’ was in full swing and psychologists, therapists, and counsellors sought out ways to incorporate cognitive phenomena into theory and therapeutic practice. The cognitive model suggests psychological conditions such as depression are driven by cognitive distortions. The cognitive model of counselling and therapy suggests that cognitive change is key to treating psychological disorders. Specifically, cognitive therapy emphasised challenging or disputing irrational, dysfunctional, negative or erroneous thoughts and replacing them with more rational, functional, and realistic ones.
Over the succeeding years, behaviour therapy and cognitive therapy grew together and influenced each other to such an extent that they combined – resulting in cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), which is the landmark of ‘second wave’ behavioural therapy. CBT features a combination of “a structured approach to behaviour change, alongside attention to irrational, dysfunctional thoughts as a critical focus for change” (McLeod, 2019, p. 124), and arose as one of the most widely applied approaches up to today. You will learn more about CBT in detail in the following module.
The success of CBT created the environment to support the growth of creative and innovative behavioural therapies, leading to the emergence of ‘third wave’ therapies, characterised by the emphasis on experiential strategies (e.g., mindfulness skills) while retaining the core features of CBT:
Many of these [third wave] approaches have sought to shift the emphasis of cognitive-behavioural work somewhat away from a sole focus on patterns of behaviour and cognition in problem situations, and towards an appreciation and acceptance of here-and-now experiencing. At the same time, while demonstrating a willingness to learn from other therapy traditions, these approaches have retained the core CBT values of brief therapy, close attention to the context within which behaviour occurs, providing clients with structure and clear guidelines around what is expected of them, and a commitment to evaluate outcome and process using rigorous methods of research.
(McLeod, 2019, p. 139)
Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) is a prominent example of ‘third wave’ therapies. ACT integrates acceptance-based mindfulness strategies with commitment and behavioural change strategies (Corey, 2017). The goal of ACT is to increase ‘psychological flexibility’ through practicing mindfulness skills and behavioural strategies. You will be learning about ACT in more detail in module 9.
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
Follow the story of Lily to see how cognitive behaviour therapy can be used to treat school anxiety.
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While the ‘three waves’ of behaviour therapy have had a large impact on modern counselling practice, another ‘school’ of counselling has also emerged – humanistic approaches. One of the most widely applied humanistic approaches to counselling is the person-centred approach. The emergence of person-centred counselling and therapy in the 1950s was part of a broader movement to create a ‘humanistic’ alternative to the dominant therapeutic approaches of the time – psychoanalysis and behaviourism (McLeod, 2019).
[Humanistic] writers shared a vision of a psychology that would have a place for the human capacity for creativity, growth and choice, and were influenced by the European tradition of existential and phenomenological philosophy,
as well as by Eastern religions such as Buddhism. The image of the person in humanistic psychology is of a self striving to find meaning and fulfillment in the world. Bugental (1964) formulated five ‘basic postulates’ for humanistic psychology:
- Human beings, as human, supersede the sum of their parts. They cannot be reduced to components.
- Human beings have their existence in a uniquely human context, as well as in cosmic ecology.
- Human beings are aware and aware of being aware (i.e., they are conscious).
- Human consciousness always includes an awareness of oneself in the context of other people.
- Human beings have some choice and, with that, responsibility.
- Human beings are intentional, aim at goals, are aware that they cause future events, and seek meaning, value, and creativity
(McLeod, 2019, p. 151)
The humanistic approaches focus on the growth, potential and self-actualisation of people, offering a positive and optimistic view of humanity in contrast to the popular psychoanalytic and behaviourist ideas at the time. This is highlighted in the following extract which includes a statement by Abraham Maslow, one of the key figures in the field of humanistic theory:
Maslow (1968, p. 10) wrote, ‘Human nature is not nearly as bad as it has been thought to be . . . It is as if Freud supplied us with the sick half of psychology and we must now fill it with the healthy half.’... It is the premise and assumption of growth, human potential, and move towards self-actualisation on which humanistic therapies are based.
(Sims & Reeves, 2018, p. 99)
What even is "Self-Actualization"? - Humanistic Theory
This video discusses personality psychology, Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Carl Rogers, and the humanistic perspective.
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Humanistic approaches are guided by key philosphical assumptions including (Sims & Reeves, 2018):
- Each individual has the potential for growth and development.
- We all possess free will and make decisions and choices based on our beliefs and experiences.
- There is no single reality; rather reality is constructed through our own individual experience – “We therefore must pay careful attention to an individual’s account of their reality to begin to understand it fully” (p. 101).
Carl Rogers is credited with the development of person-centred (or ‘client-centred’) counselling and therapy. He identified three core conditions that are necessary for clients to make progress: empathy, unconditional positive regard, and congruence or genuineness that are now widely considered as the benchmark of good helping relationships. You will learn more about person-centred counselling later in this module.
Cinderella Counseling - Humanistic Approach
This video uses the story of Cinderella to explain the humanistic approach.
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A number of other counselling approaches emerged from the latter part of the 20th century onwards. In a radical philosophical movement away from mainstream approaches which focus on a single, objective reality, the post-modern approaches generally focus on deconstructing beliefs and examining their value within an individual’s life. In contrast to the previously discussed approaches, the post-modern approaches come from a strengths-based perspective in that they are designed to empower the client rather than focusing on problems and deficits. Two post-modern approaches that have been heavily influential in contemporary counselling are solution-focused therapy and narrative therapy.
The following extract highlights the evolution of theoretical perspectives, particularly in relation to the origin of problem, from earlier to post-modern approaches:
The solution-focused approach represents a radical perspective in relation to a number of the key issues that have dominated debates within counselling and psychotherapy during the past 50 years. In psychoanalysis, much of the effectiveness of therapy is attributed to the achievement of suitable insight and understanding of the origins of the presenting problem – for example, its roots in childhood experience. The next generation of therapies that emerged in the mid-twentieth century – humanistic and cognitive-behavioural – retained an interest in understanding the roots of the person’s problem, but, compared with psychoanalysis, paid much more attention to what the person might be seeking to be able to do in the future. Solution-focused therapy represents a radical further movement in this direction. In solution-focused therapy, the ‘problem’ is not particularly interesting. What is important is to focus on the solutions and strengths that the person already possesses, or is able to devise, in relation to living the kind of life they want to live.
(McLeod, 2019, p. 224)
Postmodernism explained for beginners
In this video the narrator uses a range of examples to explain aspects of Jean Baudrillard’s work on post-modernism. T and looks at hyper-reality, culture as a simulation and simulacra, and hyper-real inertia.
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Solution-Focused Therapy
Steve de Shazer from the Brief Family Therapy Centre in Milwaukee is credited for developing the therapy, along with colleagues and collaborators Insoo Kim Berg, Yvonne Dolan and Bill O’ Hanlan (McLeod, 2019). Unlike traditional therapies that seek understanding of how a problem emerged, solution-focused therapy is a future-focused, goal-oriented therapeutic approach that focuses on client strengths and encourages clients to consider what their preferred future would look like (Corey, 2017).
De Shazer (1988, 1991) suggests that it is not necessary to know the cause of problems and their solutions. Assessing problems is not necessary for change to occur. If knowing and understanding problems are unimportant, so is searching for “right” or absolute solutions. Any person might consider multiple solutions, and what is right for one person may not be right for others.
(Corey, 2017, p. 371)
A solution-focused counsellor focuses on helping clients identify their strengths and past successes and use these to help the client work towards their goals and preferred future. You will learn more about solution-focused therapy in module 8.
Five Essential Principles of the Solution-Focused Approach
This video views the Solution-Focused Approach from above and beyond, and discusses five organising principles, including the importance of constructive language and working from a systemic perspective.
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Narrative Therapy
Narrative therapy emerged in the 1980s and was used most prolifically by two Australian family therapists, Michael White and David Epston. Narrative therapy is based upon the principles of social constructionist philosophy which proposes that “personal experience and meaning as embedded in a culture and shaped by that culture” (McLeod, 2019, p. 211). People create meaning in their lives by creating stories about their lives and the lives of those around them. In narrative therapy, counsellors help clients to separate themselves from their problems and view their lives from a different perspective (Kottler & Shepard, 2015). There are several central premises to narrative therapy. These include:
- The meaning people give to their lives is shaped by the stories they tell themselves
- These stories can constrict their lives and are often influenced by the dominant culture in which they live
- The proper focus of counselling should be helping people examine and “re-author” their stories
(Kottler & Shepard, 2015, p. 139)
Narrative therapists seek to help ‘externalise’ a client’s problem so that the client can view it as something that is impacting their life as opposed to a fundamental part of who they are. Narrative therapists then help the client to deconstruct the problem (i.e., understand how their ‘problem story’ has been constructed and supported) before ‘reconstructing’ or ‘re-authoring’ an alternative narrative/story that is more aligned with their preferred identity and future.
What is Narrative Therapy?
This video describes narrative therapy.
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Read
Reading B – Narrative Therapy
Reading B discusses narrative therapy in more detail, including the underpinning concepts, the therapeutic process, and a range of techniques and processes relating to applying narrative therapy. Whilst we do not cover narrative therapy in the further modules, it is a popular postmodern approach applied in counselling, coaching and other therapeutic settings. If you are interested, we encourage you to source additional information and books to expand your learning.
It is important to mention that the various counselling approaches mentioned have been and continue to evolve today. Some counsellors only practice from a particular approach, while others use various techniques from various approaches. No matter which approaches you may be practicing from, counsellors must seek to develop their understanding and skills on counselling therapies and trends through regularly accessing credible sources of information and professional development activities.
Narrative Therapy example
Watch the following role-play and answer the questions that follow.
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Reflect
Reflect upon each of the counselling approaches and theories you have learned about in this section of the module and Reading A. At this stage, do any of these approaches appeal more to you than others?
Consider why this theory or approach appeals to you. Is it the underpinning concepts and principles? The role of the counsellor and client? The techniques and interventions used? A combination of factors?
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Externalizing the Problem - Excessive Worry
Watch the following role-play and answer the questions that follow.
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Counselling Theories Strengths & Limitations
This video discusses the strengths and limitations of three counselling theories.
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This section of the module presented a brief developmental history of the major counselling approaches that have shaped modern counselling in Australia. Of course, this was only a brief introduction; you will learn much more about a number of these key approaches – person-centred therapy, cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), solution focused therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy – over the next few modules of your Diploma.
Corey, G. (2017). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (10th ed.). Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Hough, M. (2021). Counselling skills and theory (5th ed.). Hodder Education.
Kottler, J. A., & Shepard, D. S. (2015). Introduction to counseling: Voices from the field (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
McLeod, J. (2019). An introduction to counselling and psychotherapy. (6th ed.). McGraw Hill.
Reeves, A., & Tebble, G. (2018). Integrative and pluralistic approaches. In A. Reeves (Ed.) An introduction to counselling and psychotherapy: From theory to practice (2nd ed.) (pp. 119-134). Sage Publications.
Sims, M., & Reeves, A. (2018). Humanistic approaches. In A. Reeves (Ed.) An introduction to counselling and psychotherapy: From theory to practice (2nd ed.) (pp. 97-118). Sage Publications.
